CX3CL1-CX3CR1轴参与小胶质细胞、神经元及其交互的调控

小胶质细胞与神经元在大脑生理状态或病理状态下都进行着广泛的双向通讯,其对于大脑稳态的建立具有重要作用。研究发现,趋化因子CX3CL1及其受体CX3CR1在小胶质细胞、神经元及其交互调控中起着重要作用,因此有可能成为多种神经退行性疾病、精神疾病等脑病理状态的新靶点。本文就近年来国内外研究CX3CL1-CX3CR1信号轴在小胶质细胞、神经元及其交互调控中的作用进行综述。     

编者按: 神奇的“胶水”细胞

胶质细胞是一类神经系统中区别于神经元的一大类细胞，其数量是神经元的10~50倍。而且在相当长的一段时间胶质细胞也被认为是神经系统中的一种“胶水”，仅起到黏结神经元和填充神经系统的作用。随着近几十年神经科学的发展，神经生物学家们发现，胶质细胞的功能多种多样，并参与记忆、认知、神经发育性和退行性疾病，甚至衰老等高级功能。通过PubMed查询，中国胶质细胞相关论文的十年增长率为270%，远远高于全球平均增长率140%，说明中国在胶质细胞方面的研究势头非常强劲。本期《生物化学与生物物理进展》刊出了围绕胶质细胞的20余篇论文。涵盖胶质细胞的生理功能和病理功能的各个方面。本期的刊行将有利于推动国内胶质细胞科学研究，并为中国脑计划提供参考。     

BAX敲除对小鼠大脑皮层和海马星形胶质细胞分布的影响

星形胶质细胞是大脑中一类高度异质的重要大胶质细胞,不仅在脑的发育和功能中起到重要作用,也参与多种神经病理生理学过程。多项研究表明B淋巴细胞瘤-2相关X蛋白(B-cell lymphoma-2 associated X protein,BAX)依赖性凋亡通路参与调控正常发育过程中脑内神经元的数量与分布,但是对其调控星形胶质细胞的研究则较为匮乏。本文旨在研究BAX是否参与不同脑区星形胶质细胞分布的调控。以纯合子和杂合子BAX敲除小鼠为研究对象,用SOX9免疫荧光染色法检测6周龄小鼠的大脑皮层和海马中星形胶质细胞的密度。结果显示,星形胶质细胞的密度在不同皮层分区之间以及皮层和海马之间存在显著差异,并且BAX敲除导致海马中星形胶质细胞的密度显著降低,皮层中GABA能抑制神经元密度显著升高,而皮层中星形胶质细胞的密度则未受显著影响。以上结果提示,BAX差异调控皮层星形胶质细胞与神经元,也差异调控皮层与海马中的星形胶质细胞。这项研究为了解星形胶质细胞的区域异质性和BAX在大脑发育中的功能提供了重要信息。     

健康和脑损伤下小胶质细胞在成年海马神经发生中的调节作用

成年脑内终生存在持续性神经发生,该过程受多种内外因素的调节.小胶质细胞是脑内固有的免疫细胞,在维持脑稳态和脑的免疫调节方面起着重要作用.越来越多的研究显示,小胶质细胞通过吞噬作用清除细胞碎片,并通过与神经元的直接接触和/或释放可溶性因子影响成年海马神经发生.本文综述了在生理状态下,小胶质细胞如何调控成年海马神经干/祖细胞及新生神经元的不同阶段,进而调节神经发生.此外,本文还综述了在脑损伤条件下,海马神经发生和小胶质细胞形态功能的变化,以及如何通过干预小胶质细胞影响海马神经发生,为应用小胶质细胞促进脑的内源性修复提供理论依据.     

胶质细胞干细胞/前体细胞特性的研究进展

胶质细胞是脑内数量最多的神经细胞,包括星形胶质细胞、少突胶质前体细胞、NG2胶质细胞等多种类型,具有维持神经系统内环境稳态、支持和营养神经元、调控神经信号传导等多种重要功能。近年来,随着研究的深入,越来越多的证据表明某些特定的胶质细胞在一定条件下表现出干细胞的特性,发挥干细胞的功能。例如,在病理损伤条件下,星形胶质细胞和少突胶质前体细胞均会被活化而出现增殖、分化,体外分离培养可自我更新形成神经球。这些活化的星形胶质细胞和少突胶质前体细胞形成的神经球能够被诱导分化为星形胶质细胞、少突胶质细胞和神经元。此外,通过强制性表达外源基因能将星形胶质细胞和NG2胶质细胞转分化为神经元,这可能也是其干细胞特性的一种体现。本文在已有研究的基础上,总结了放射状胶质细胞、少突胶质前体细胞、星形胶质细胞、NG2胶质细胞与其它类型胶质细胞的干细胞特性、干细胞特性形成的条件、它们可能产生的子代细胞以及涉及的分子信号调控通路。深入探讨胶质细胞的干细胞特性及生理功能,有利于促进其在神经系统损伤修复领域的临床应用。     

星形胶质细胞在阿尔茨海默病中的功能变化及分子机制

星形胶质细胞在脑内数量最多,分布最广,对神经元有营养支持的作用,并且能够调控神经元的活性。越来越多的证据表明星形胶质细胞激活参与阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)的发生和发展。在AD病理情况下,星形胶质细胞在多种因子如β淀粉样蛋白(beta-amyloid,Aβ)和促炎细胞因子的作用下被激活,激活的星形胶质细胞进一步释放一氧化氮(Nitric oxide,NO)和多种炎性因子增强炎症级联反应。功能失常的星形胶质细胞会促进Aβ的产生,减弱对Aβ的摄取和清除,导致Aβ聚集沉积形成老年斑。激活的星形胶质细胞释放的炎症因子还能显著增加神经元内tau蛋白的异常过度磷酸化,产生神经纤维缠结。本文对星形胶质细胞在AD中参与神经变性的功能变化和分子机制进行总结,为星形胶质细胞作为靶点预防及治疗AD提供一定的理论依据。     

小胶质细胞介导的吞噬作用在神经退行性疾病中的研究进展

随着人口老龄化进程加剧,阿尔茨海默病和帕金森病等神经退行性疾病迄今为止已经成为一种全球性的健康危机之一。目前的研究进展表明,小胶质细胞与神经元的相互作用对中枢神经系统的稳态维持至关重要。神经退行性疾病研究,包括大规模全基因组关联分析或者脑影像学研究都提示,小胶质细胞在疾病早期大量激活。小胶质细胞是脑内一类吞噬细胞,新的细胞吞噬途径——细胞啃噬(trogocytosis)的发现为揭示小胶质细胞与存活神经元之间存在的密切关系提供了新的视角。本文将重点对神经退行性疾病发病过程中小胶质细胞介导的吞噬及啃噬作用以及分子机制的研究进展作一简要评述。     

阿尔茨海默病与神经炎症:TNF-α的调控作用

阿尔茨海默病(AD)是一种神经退行性疾病,其相关病变包括淀粉样蛋白β在脑内沉积形成老年斑、过度磷酸化的Tau蛋白在神经细胞内聚集形成的神经原纤维缠结、轴突变性等。越来越多的证据表明, AD的发病机制并不局限于神经元,也与脑组织的神经胶质细胞密切相关。神经胶质细胞中的小胶质细胞和星型胶质细胞在神经炎症过程中发挥多方面的作用,因此影响AD病理变化的发生、发展和转归。小胶质细胞和星型胶质细胞在神经炎症过程中分泌众多细胞因子和趋化因子,其中TNF-α可特异性结合细胞表面受体TNF-R1和TNF-R2,激活NF-κB、JNK(cJun)等信号通路,促进更多炎症细胞因子的表达,参与炎症诱导、细胞凋亡、APP和Tau蛋白的生成等病理过程。该文拟对神经胶质细胞及TNF-α调控神经炎症在阿尔茨海默病中的作用及机制进行综述。     

脑能量代谢：星形胶质细胞-神经元耦合

脑是能量需求旺盛器官,能量底物的传递保证了神经元正常活化。星形胶质细胞在脑能量的产生、传递、利用和储存中具有重要功能。星形胶质细胞和神经元相互作用是脑能量代谢的核心,也是神经能量学研究的重点。本文简要综述星形胶质细胞和神经元各自的代谢特点及两者之间的代谢耦合和代谢机制。     

神经胶质细胞调控黑腹果蝇生理行为研究进展

生物机体的神经系统由神经元和神经胶质细胞(简称胶质细胞,glia)两部分组成.目前,对神经元的研究已经非常广泛,但是有关胶质细胞的功能研究仍然所知甚少.由于胶质细胞不具兴奋性,无法像神经元一样传递动作电位,传统观点认为胶质细胞主要起到支撑神经元并维持其正常功能的作用.近年来,越来越多的研究结果表明,胶质细胞参与调控生物...     

The brain's polymath: Emerging roles of microglia throughout brain development

Microglia, the resident brain immune cells, have garnered a reputation as major effectors of circuit wiring due to their ability to prune synapses. Other roles of microglia in regulating neuronal circuit development have so far received comparatively less attention. Here, we review the latest studies that have contributed to our increased understanding of how microglia regulate brain wiring beyond their role in synapse pruning. We summarize recent findings showing that microglia regulate neuronal numbers and influence neuronal connectivity through a bidirectional communication between microglia and neurons, processes regulated by neuronal activity and the remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Finally, we speculate on the potential contribution of microglia to the development of functional networks and propose an integrative view of microglia as active elements of neural circuits.     

Cathepsin regulation on microglial function

Microglia, the resident mononuclear phagocyte population in the brain, have long been implicated in the pathology of neurodegenerative age-associated disorders. However, activated microglia have now been identified as homeostatic keepers in the brain, because they are involved in the initiation and resolution of neuropathology. The complex roles of activated microglia appear to be linked to change from inflammatory and neurotoxic to anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective phenotypes. Increased expression and secretion of various cathepsins support roles of activated microglia in chronic neuroinflammation, the neurotoxic M1-like polarization and neuronal death. Moreover, changes in expression and localization of microglial cathepsin B play a critical role in the acceleration of the brain aging. Beyond the role as brain-resident macrophages, many lines of evidence have shown that microglia have essential roles in the maturation and maintenance of neuronal circuits in the developing and adult brain. Cathepsin S secreted from microglia induces the diurnal variation of spine density of cortical neurons though proteolytic modification of peri-synaptic extracellular matrix molecules. In this review, I highlight the emerging roles of cathepsins that support the roles of microglia in both normal healthy and pathological brains. In addition, I discuss cathepsin inhibitors as potential therapeutic targets for brain disorders.     

Functions of microglia in the central nervous system--beyond the immune response

Microglia cells are the immune cells of the central nervous system and consequently play important roles in brain infections and inflammation. Recent in vivo imaging studies have revealed that in the resting healthy brain, microglia are highly dynamic, moving constantly to actively survey the brain parenchyma. These active microglia can rapidly respond to pathological insults, becoming activated to induce a range of effects that may contribute to both pathogenesis, or to confer neuronal protection. However, interactions between microglia and neurons are being recognized as important in shaping neural circuit activity under more normal, physiological conditions. During development and neurogenesis, microglia interactions with neurons help to shape the final patterns of neural circuits important for behavior and with implications for diseases. In the mature brain, microglia can respond to changes in sensory activity and can influence neuronal activity acutely and over the long term. Microglia seem to be particularly involved in monitoring the integrity of synaptic function. In this review, we discuss some of these new insights into the involvement of microglia in neural circuits.     

Functional roles of microglia in the central nervous system

Microglia, a type of perineuronal glial cells in the central nervous system, have been suggested to play various important roles in normal and pathologic brains. In this article, first, we described the association or roles of activated microglia in injury and various brain diseases, and subsequently, summarized microglia-derived physiologically active molecules which will affect the neuronal survival and neuronal growth, and glial function, and finally, discussed the molecular mechanism of microglial activation.     

The role of microglia at synapses in the healthy CNS: novel insights from recent imaging studies

In the healthy brain, quiescent microglia continuously remodel their shape by extending and retracting highly motile processes. Despite a seemingly random sampling of their environment, microglial processes specifically interact with subsets of synaptic structures, as shown by recent imaging studies leading to proposed reciprocal interactions between microglia and synapses under non-pathological conditions. These studies revealed that various modalities of microglial dynamic behavior including their interactions with synaptic elements are regulated by manipulations of neurotransmission, neuronal activity and sensory experience. Conversely, these observations implied an unexpected role for quiescent microglia in the elimination of synaptic structures by specialized mechanisms that include the phagocytosis of axon terminals and dendritic spines. In light of these recent discoveries, microglia are now emerging as important effectors of neuronal circuit reorganization.     

PAK signalling in neuronal physiology

Group I p21-activated kinases are a family of key effectors of Rac1 and Cdc42 and they regulate many aspects of cellular function, such as cytoskeleton dynamics, cell movement and cell migration, cell proliferation and differentiation, and gene expression. The three genes PAK1/2/3 are expressed in brain and recent evidence indicates their crucial roles in neuronal cell fate, in axonal guidance and neuronal polarisation, and in neuronal migration. Moreover they are implicated in neurodegenerative diseases and play an important role in synaptic plasticity, with PAK3 being specifically involved in mental retardation. The main goal of this review is to describe the molecular mechanisms that govern the different functions of group I PAK in neuronal signalling and to discuss the specific functions of each isoform.     

Role of Astrocytes in Pain

Over the last decade, a series of studies has demonstrated that glia in the central nervous system play roles in many aspects of neuronal functioning including pain processing. Peripheral tissue damage or inflammation initiates signals that alter the function of the glial cells (microglia and astrocytes in particular), which in turn release factors that regulate nociceptive neuronal excitability. Like immune cells, these glial cells not only react at sites of central and/or peripheral nervous system damage but also exert their action at remote sites from the focus of injury or disease. As well as extensive evidence of microglial involvement in various pain states, there is also documentation that astrocytes are involved, sometimes seemingly playing a more dominant role than microglia. The interactions between astrocytes, microglia and neurons are now recognized as fundamental mechanisms underlying acute and chronic pain states. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding of the role of astrocytes in pain states.     

Glial cells more than support cells?

Glial cells are the most abundant cells in the human brain and have long been considered as passive supporting cells for neurons. In contrast to the extensive studies on various neuronal functions in the nervous system, we still have limited knowledge about glial cells. Recently a number of pioneering studies have provided convincing evidence that glia play active roles in development and function of the central nervous system. This review discusses recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying glial cell differentiation. We then highlight some of the novel findings about glial function, i.e. the role of glia in synaptogenesis and the intricate relationship between astrocytes and adult neural stem cells. Finally, we summarize the emerging studies that implicate abnormalities in the formation or maintenance of glia leading to severe brain diseases, such as Alexander disease, glioblastoma and multiple sclerosis, and potential therapeutic strategies to tackle these diseases.     

Regulation of microglia by ionotropic glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission

Recent studies have indicated that constitutive functions of microglia in the healthy adult central nervous system (CNS) involve immune surveillance, synapse maintenance and trophic support. These functions have been related to the ramified structure of 'resting' microglia and the prominent motility in their processes that provide extensive coverage of the entire extracellular milleu. In this review, we examine how external signals, and in particular, ionotropic neurotransmission, regulate features of microglial morphology and process motility. Current findings indicate that microglial physiology in the healthy CNS is constitutively and reciprocally regulated by endogenous ionotropic glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission. These influences do not act directly on microglial cells but indirectly via the activity-dependent release of ATP, likely through a mechanism involving pannexin channels. Microglia in the 'resting' state are not only dynamically active, but also constantly engaged in ongoing communication with neuronal and macroglial components of the CNS in a functionally relevant way.     

Neuronal Chemokines: Versatile Messengers In Central Nervous System Cell Interaction

Whereas chemokines are well known for their ability to induce cell migration, only recently it became evident that chemokines also control a variety of other cell functions and are versatile messengers in the interaction between a diversity of cell types. In the central nervous system (CNS), chemokines are generally found under both physiological and pathological conditions. Whereas many reports describe chemokine expression in astrocytes and microglia and their role in the migration of leukocytes into the CNS, only few studies describe chemokine expression in neurons. Nevertheless, the expression of neuronal chemokines and the corresponding chemokine receptors in CNS cells under physiological and pathological conditions indicates that neuronal chemokines contribute to CNS cell interaction. In this study, we review recent studies describing neuronal chemokine expression and discuss potential roles of neuronal chemokines in neuron–astrocyte, neuron–microglia, and neuron–neuron interaction.