Bioavailability and extraction of heavy metals from contaminated soil by Atriplex halimus

Pot experiments were performed to evaluate the phytoremediation capacity of plants of Atriplex halimus grown in contaminated mine soils and to investigate the effects of organic amendments on the metal bioavailability and uptake of these metals by plants. Soil samples collected from abandoned mine sites north of Madrid (Spain) were mixed with 0, 30 and 60 Mg ha⁻¹ of two organic amendments, with different pH and nutrients content: pine-bark compost and horse- and sheep-manure compost. The increasing soil organic matter content and pH by the application of manure amendment reduced metal bioavailability in soil stabilising them. The proportion of Cu in the most bioavailable fractions (sum of the water-soluble, exchangeable, acid-soluble and Fe–Mn oxides fractions) decreased with the addition of 60 Mg ha⁻¹ of manure from 62% to 52% in one of the soils studied and from 50% to 30% in the other. This amendment also reduced Zn proportion in water-soluble and exchangeable fractions from 17% to 13% in one of the soils. Manure decreased metal concentrations in shoots of A. halimus, from 97 to 35 mg kg⁻¹ of Cu, from 211 to 98 mg kg⁻¹ of Zn and from 1.4 to 0.6 mg kg⁻¹ of Cd. In these treatments there was a higher plant growth due to the lower metal toxicity and the improvement of nutrients content in soil. This higher growth resulted in a higher total metal accumulation in plant biomass and therefore in a greater amount of metals removed from soil, so manure could be useful for phytoextraction purposes. This amendment increased metal accumulation in shoots from 37 to 138 mg pot⁻¹ of Cu, from 299 to 445 mg pot⁻¹ of Zn and from 1.8 to 3.7 mg pot⁻¹ of Cd. Pine bark amendment did not significantly alter metal availability and its uptake by plants. Plants of A. halimus managed to reduce total Zn concentration in one of the soils from 146 to 130 mg kg⁻¹, but its phytoextraction capacity was insufficient to remediate contaminated soils in the short-to-medium term. However, A. halimus could be, in combination with manure amendment, appropriate for the phytostabilization of metals in mine soils.     

Long-term tillage effects on soil organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon in a purple paddy soil of Southwest China

The impact of conservation tillage practices on soil carbon has been of great interest in recent years. Conservation tillage might have the potential to enhance soil carbon accumulation and alter the depth distribution of soil carbon compared to conventional tillage based systems. Changes in the soil organic carbon (SOC) as influenced by tillage, are more noticeable under long-term rather than short-term tillage practices. The objective of this study was to determine the impacts of long-term tillage on SOC and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) status after 19 years of four tillage treatments in a Hydragric Anthrosol. In this experiment four tillage systems included conventional tillage with rotation of rice and winter fallow system (CTF), conventional tillage with rotation of rice and rape system (CTR), no-till and ridge culture with rotation of rice and rape system (NT) and tillage and ridge culture with rotation of rice and rape system (TR). Soils were sampled in the spring of 2009 and sectioned into 0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40, 40–50 and 50–60 cm depth, respectively.Tillage effect on SOC was observed, and SOC concentrations were much larger under NT than the other three tillage methods in all soil depths from 0 to 60 cm. The mean SOC concentration at 0–60 cm soil depth followed the sequence: NT (22.74 g kg^?1) > CTF (14.57 g kg^?1) > TR (13.10 g kg^?1) > CTR (11.92 g kg^?1). SOC concentrations under NT were significantly higher than TR and CTR (P < 0.01), and higher than CTF treatment (P < 0.05). The SOC storage was calculated on equivalent soil mass basis. Results showed that the highest SOC storage at 0–60 cm depth presented in NT, which was 158.52 Mg C ha^?1, followed by CTF (106.74 Mg C ha^?1), TR (93.11 Mg C ha^?1) and CTR (88.60 Mg C ha^?1). Compared with conventional tillage (CTF), the total SOC storage in NT increased by 48.51%, but decreased by 16.99% and 12.77% under CTR and TR treatments, respectively. The effect of tillage on DOC was significant at 0–10 cm soil layer, and DOC concentration was much higher under CTF than the other three treatments (P < 0.01). Throughout 0–60 cm soil depth, DOC concentrations were 32.92, 32.63, 26.79 and 22.10 mg kg^?1 under NT, CTF, CTR and TR, and the differences among the four treatments were not significant (P > 0.05). In conclusion, NT increased SOC concentration and storage compared to conventional tillage operation but not for DOC.     

Environmental indicators for estimating the potential soil respiration rate in alpine zone

Soil respiration is the main form of carbon flux from soil to atmosphere in the global carbon cycle. The effect of temperature on soil respiration rate is important in evaluating the potential feedback of soil organic carbon to global warming. We incubated soils from the alpine meadow zone and upper rocky zone along an altitudinal gradient (4400–5500 m a.s.l.) on the Tibetan Plateau under various temperature and soil moisture conditions. We evaluated the potential effects of temperature and soil moisture on soil respiration and its variation across altitudes. Soil respiration rates increased as the temperature increased. At 60% of soil water content, they averaged 0.21–5.33 μmol g soil⁻¹ day⁻¹ in the alpine meadow zone and 0.11–0.50 μmol g soil⁻¹ day⁻¹ in the rocky zone over the experimental temperature range. Soil respiration rates in the rocky zone did not increase between 25 and 35 °C, probably because of heat stress. Rates of decomposition of organic matter were high in the rocky zone, where the CN ratio was smaller than in the middle altitudes. Soil respiration rates also increased with increasing soil water content from 10% to 80% at 15 °C, averaging 0.04–2.00 μmol g soil⁻¹ day⁻¹ in the alpine meadow zone and 0.03–0.35 μmol g soil⁻¹ day⁻¹ in the rocky zone. Maximum respiration rates were obtained in the middle part of the alpine slope in any case of experimental temperature and soil moisture. The change patterns in soil respiration rate along altitude showed similar change pattern in soil carbon content. Although the altitude is a variable including various environmental factors, it might be used as a surrogate parameter of soil carbon content in alpine zone. Results suggest that temperature, soil moisture and altitude are used as appropriate environmental indicators for estimating the spatial distribution of potential soil respiration in alpine zone.     

Carbon profiles of typical forest types across Europe assessed with CO2FIX

This paper presents for 16 typical forest types across Europe a standard carbon sequestration profile. The study was carried out with the model CO2FIX which was parameterised with local yield table data and additional required parameters. CO2FIX quantifies the carbon of the forest ecosystem–soil–wood products chain at the stand level. To avoid misleading results annual net sequestration rates are not presented here, because these strongly fluctuate in time. Therefore, only its advancing mean is presented as a more reliable indicator. This avoids a great deal of uncertainty for policy makers. The variation between forest types is large, but mean sequestration rates mostly peak after some 38 years (with a net source lasting up to 15 years after afforestation) at an average value of 2.98 Mg C ha⁻¹ per year (ranging between forest types from 4.1 to 1.15). After 200 years, the net sequestration rate saturates to a value of 0.8 Mg C ha⁻¹ per year (ranging from 1.4 to 0.13). The long-term mean carbon stock in tree biomass and products amounts on average to 114 Mg C ha⁻¹ (ranging from 52 to 196).     

A comparative assessment of support vector regression,artificial neural networks,and random forests for predicting and mapping soil organic carbon stocks across an Afromontane landscape

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a key indicator of ecosystem health, with a great potential to affect climate change. This study aimed to develop, evaluate, and compare the performance of support vector regression (SVR), artificial neural network (ANN), and random forest (RF) models in predicting and mapping SOC stocks in the Eastern Mau Forest Reserve, Kenya. Auxiliary data, including soil sampling, climatic, topographic, and remotely-sensed data were used for model calibration. The calibrated models were applied to create prediction maps of SOC stocks that were validated using independent testing data. The results showed that the models overestimated SOC stocks. Random forest model with a mean error (ME) of −6.5 Mg C ha⁻¹ had the highest tendency for overestimation, while SVR model with an ME of −4.4 Mg C ha⁻¹ had the lowest tendency. Support vector regression model also had the lowest root mean squared error (RMSE) and the highest R² values (14.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ and 0.6, respectively); hence, it was the best method to predict SOC stocks. Artificial neural network predictions followed closely with RMSE, ME, and R² values of 15.5, −4.7, and 0.6, respectively. The three prediction maps broadly depicted similar spatial patterns of SOC stocks, with an increasing gradient of SOC stocks from east to west. The highest stocks were on the forest-dominated western and north-western parts, while the lowest stocks were on the cropland-dominated eastern part. The most important variable for explaining the observed spatial patterns of SOC stocks was total nitrogen concentration. Based on the close performance of SVR and ANN models, we proposed that both models should be calibrated, and then the best result applied for spatial prediction of target soil properties in other contexts.     

Soil nitrate accumulation explains the nonlinear responses of soil CO2 and CH4 fluxes to nitrogen addition in a temperate needle-broadleaved mixed forest

The responses of soil-atmosphere carbon (C) exchange fluxes to growing atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition are controversial, leading to large uncertainty in the estimated C sink of global forest ecosystems experiencing substantial N inputs. However, it is challenging to quantify critical load of N input for the alteration of the soil C fluxes, and what factors controlled the changes in soil CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes under N enrichment. Nine levels of urea addition experiment (0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) were conducted in the needle-broadleaved mixed forest in Changbai Mountain, Northeast China. Soil CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes were monitored weekly using the static chamber and gas chromatograph technique. Environmental variables (soil temperature and moisture in the 0–10 cm depth) and dissolved N (NH₄⁺-N, NO₃⁻-N, total dissolved N (TDN), and dissolved organic N (DON)) in the organic layer and the 0–10 cm mineral soil layer were simultaneously measured. High rates of N addition (≥60 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) significantly increased soil NO₃⁻-N contents in the organic layer and the mineral layer by 120%-180% and 56.4%-84.6%, respectively. However, N application did not lead to a significant accumulation of soil NH₄⁺-N contents in the two soil layers except for a few treatments. N addition at a low rate of 10 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ significantly stimulated, whereas high rate of N addition (140 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) significantly inhibited soil CO₂ emission and CH₄ uptake. Significant negative relationships were observed between changes in soil CO₂ emission and CH₄ uptake and changes in soil NO₃⁻-N and moisture contents under N enrichment. These results suggest that soil nitrification and NO₃⁻-N accumulation could be important regulators of soil CO₂ emission and CH₄ uptake in the temperate needle-broadleaved mixed forest. The nonlinear responses to exogenous N inputs and the critical level of N in terms of soil C fluxes should be considered in the ecological process models and ecosystem management.     

Application of soil slurry respirometry to optimise and subsequently monitor ex situ bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soils

A protocol to monitor respiration as O₂ consumption in soil slurries using the Strathtox^® respirometer was developed and tested on four soils from brownfield sites. Respiration rates (mg l⁻¹ h⁻¹) of soil slurries in the Strathtox^® were compared with rates (μl min⁻¹) of field moist soils analysed using the Columbus Oxymax^® ER10 respirometer. One of the soils (99612B), historically contaminated with diesel, was further studied by monitoring the effect of inorganic NH₄NO₃ liquid nutrient on enhancing respiration rate. Soil microcosms were monitored continuously on the Oxymax^® or sampled at 24, 48 and 72 h intervals, prepared as soil slurries, and analysed on the Strathtox^®. On the full-scale remediation project (∼6000 m³) soil 99612B was treated as a biopile with spent mushroom compost (SMC) amendment and respiration rates monitored in samples over an 8-week period. In the laboratory microcosm experiment and full-scale bioremediation treatment described, correlation was found for respiration rates between the two respirometry systems.     

Assessment of soil salinization risks under irrigation with brackish water in semiarid Tunisia

The salinity problem is becoming increasingly widespread in arid countries. In semiarid Tunisia about 50% of the irrigated land is considered as highly sensitive to salinization. To avoid the risk of salinization, it is important to control the soil salinity and keep it below plant salinity tolerance thresholds. The objective of the present study was to provide farmers and rural development offices with a tool and methodology for predicting, monitoring of soil salinity for a better agronomical strategy. The experiments were carried out in the highly complex and heterogeneous semiarid Kalâat Landalous irrigated district of Tunisia. The field and laboratory measurements of soil and water properties were conducted in 1989 and 2006 at different observation scales (2900 ha, 1400 ha, 5200 m long transect, and soil profiles). Seventeen years of reclamation of a saline and waterlogged soil led to the reduction of average electrical conductivity of the soil saturated paste extract (ECe), measured at 5 soil depths (from 0 to 2 m) below the plant salt tolerance threshold and the dilution of groundwater salinity from 18.3 to 6.6 dS m⁻¹. The variation in soil salt storage (ΔMss = Mss₂₀₀₆ − Mss₁₉₈₉) in the vadose zone was negative, equal to about −145 × 10³ ton (≈−50 ton ha⁻¹). During the same period, the salt balance (Siw–Sdw) estimated from the input dissolved salt brought by irrigation water (Siw) and output salts exported by the drainage network (Sdw) was equal to −685 × 10⁶ kg and the Sdw was 945 × 10⁶ kg. Under irrigation and efficient drainage, the soil salinization could be considered as a reversible process. At the transect scale, the high clay content and the exchangeable sodium percentage was negatively correlated to saturated hydraulic conductivity. The textural stratification, observed at soil profile scale, favors accumulation of salt in the soil. Based on the findings related to the multiscale assessment of soil salinity and groundwater properties, soil salinization factors were identified and a soil salinization risk map (SRU) was elaborated. The shallow groundwater constitutes the main risk of soil salinization. This map can be used by both land planners and farmers to make appropriate decisions related to crop production, and soil and water management.     

Effectiveness of sulfur with Acidithiobacillus and gypsum in chemical attributes of a Brazilian sodic soil

Gypsum and sulfur have been used as amendments for application in sodic and saline sodic soils, although gypsum is not effective in soil pH reduction. In this study the combined effects of elemental sulfur inoculated with Acidithiobacillus (S*) and gypsum (G) in chemical attributes of a Brazilian solodic soil was evaluated. The treatments consisted in addition of S* and G in various levels (0, 0.8, 1.6, 2.4, and 3.2 t ha⁻¹) and different mixing proportions (100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 100:0), acting during 15, 30, and 45 days. Sulfur inoculated with Acidithiobacillus (S*) markedly reduced soil pH in the leaching solution, especially when applied in the highest levels. Gypsum or sulfur applied individually was not satisfactory for soil reclamation. At 15 days of incubation Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺ showed higher values in the leaching solution, and a marked decrease was observed in the leaching solution at 30 days. Reduction in soil electrical conductivity and in exchangeable Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺ was observed and in a general way best results were achieved with S* : G in the ratio 50:50, using 2.4 and 3.2 t ha⁻¹. Sulfur with Acidithiobacillus was more effective than gypsum in decreasing soil pH, and sulfur applied with gypsum in the proportion 50:50 showed the best results in relation to exchangeable sodium and electrical conductivity and showed values below those used for classification as sodic soils.     

Influence of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients on the functional diversity of microbial communities in the vegetable cropping system of the Indo-Gangetic plains

The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of different organic and inorganic fertilizers on the functional diversity of soil microbial community under a vegetable production system. The Biolog^® Eco-plate technique and indices, such as average well-colour development (AWCD), McIntosh and Shannon diversity were employed to study the diversity of soil microorganisms. The AWCD, i.e. overall utilization of carbon sources, suggested that different organic treatments had a significant impact on the metabolic activity of soil microorganisms. After 120 h, the highest AWCD values were observed in poultry manure (2.5 t·ha^?1) + vermicompost (3.5 t·ha^?1) (0.63) and farm yard manure (FYM) (10 t·ha^?1) + vermicompost (3.5 t·ha^?1) (0.61). After 72 h, the highest value of the McIntosh diversity index was recorded in poultry manure (2.5 t·ha^?1) + vermicompost (3.5 t·ha^?1) (3.87), followed by poultry manure (2.5 t·ha^?1) + vermicompost (3.5 t·ha^?1) + biofertilizers (Azotobacter 500 g·ha^?1 applied as seed treatment) (3.12). In the case of the Shannon diversity index, the highest values were noticed in organic treatments; however, there was no significant differences between organic and inorganic treatments. Biplot analysis showed a clear differentiation of organic treatments from the inorganic control. The amino acids, phenolics and polymer utilizing microorganisms were dominant in organic treatments. Inorganic control recorded the lowest values of the microbial diversity indices. Through this study, we have identified the best combination of organic nutrients, i.e. poultry manure (2.5 t·ha^?1) + vermicompost (3.5 t·ha^?1) for the stimulation of metabolically active soil microbial communities.     

Energy budgeting and emergy synthesis of rainfed maize–wheat rotation system with different soil amendment applications

Soil is a non-renewable resource and its preservation is essential for food security, ecosystem services and our sustainable future. Simultaneously, it is a major challenge to substitute non-renewable fossil based resources with renewable resources to reduce environmental load. In order to check soil erosion vis-a-vis degradation of sloppy lands of rainfed maize–wheat rotation system, fertilization with organic manure supplemented with inorganic fertilizers is required. In order to address these issues, substitution of 50% NPK through four organic manures viz. farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost (VC), poultry manure (PM) and in situ green manuring (GM) of sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) were evaluated against 100% NPK through inorganic fertilizers and through FYM for energy budgeting and emergy synthesis during 2009–2014. Integrated use of FYM along with 50% NPK fertilizers could maintain the highest energy ratio (7.3), human energy profitability (142.4), energy productivity (0.22 kg MJ⁻¹), and energy profitability (6.3 MJ ha⁻¹) over other treatments. However, GM and inorganic fertilizers on equal NPK basis maintained the highest energy intensiveness (24.61 MJ US $⁻¹) and exhibited higher emergy yield ratio (2.66) and lower emergy investment ratio (0.60) and environmental loading ratio (3.74) which resulted into higher environmental sustainability index (0.71) over other treatments. Fertilization with organic manure (FYM) alone could not compete with other fertilized options to energy budgeting and emergy synthesis except specific energy. The study demonstrated that innovative integrated nutrient management of chemical fertilizers and organic manures particularly FYM for energy budgeting and GM for emergy synthesis may be considered as feasible and environment-friendly options for soil conservation, thereby benefiting a 50% saving on costly chemical fertilizers in non-OPEC countries which import most of its phosphorus and potassium fertilizers.     

Soybean residues sequestration affected by different tillage practices and the impacts on soil microbial characteristics and enzymatic activities

A large quantity of leaf litter was left on soil surface after soybean (Glycine max) harvest in the black soil region, northeast of China, where soybean was planted with the largest area. This paper investigated the effects of different fall tillage practices on soybean leaf litter sequestration into soil, and the subsequently durative effects on soil biological and biochemical properties during the next growing season. Two practices were investigated, fall tillage (T) and no fall tillage (NT) after soybean harvest in autumn. Results showed that the residue biomass on soil surface and in subsoil profile (0–20 cm) after soybean harvest was about 1450 kg ha^?1 and 340 kg ha^?1, respectively in October 2006. The residue biomass on soil surface and in subsoil profile was about 84 kg ha^?1, 1581 kg ha^?1 for T, and 423 kg ha^?1, 340 kg ha^?1 for NT respectively in May 2007. It was obvious that T practice can more effectively sequester leaf litter into soil compared to NT. Results also showed that T practices after soybean harvest eminently improved soil microbial carbon biomass and nitrogen biomass contents, and significantly improved soil urease and acid phosphate activities than NT. No significant difference of dehydrogenase activity was found between N and NT. The positive effects of T treatment on Soil microbial properties and soil enzymes activities among the next growing season due to soybean residues sequestration performed durative profit.     

Evaluation of integrating topographic wetness index with backscattering coefficient of TerraSAR-X image for soil moisture estimation in a mountainous region

The estimation of soil moisture by using the backscattering coefficient of radar in a mountainous region is a challenging task due to the complex topography, which impacts the distribution of soil moisture and changes the backscattering coefficient. Complicated terrain can disturb empirical moisture estimation models, thereby, the resulting estimates of soil moisture are very unlikely reliable. This article proposed an innovative way of integration of the topographic wetness index (TWI) and the backscattering coefficient of soil obtained from the TerraSAR-X image, which improves the accuracy of measurement of the soil moisture. The standard estimation error and the coefficient of determination from the model were used to evaluate the performance of TWI. Our results show that the standard estimation error was decreased from: (1) 4.0% to 3.3% cm³ cm⁻³ at a depth of 5 cm and (2) 4.5% to 3.9% cm³ cm⁻³ at a depth of 10 cm. The most reliable estimation was observed at a depth of 5 cm, when it was compared with those of 0–5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm. The TWI from the digital elevation model (DEM) is useful as a constraint condition for modeling work. This article concludes that the integration of the backscattering coefficient of soil with TWI can significantly reduce the uncertainty in the estimation of soil moisture in a mountainous region.     

Alleviation of soil acidity in Ultisol and Oxisol for corn growth

Malaysian Ultisols and Oxisols are characterized by low pH, high soil solution Al concentration and Ca and/or Mg deficiencies, which are limiting to corn growth. An experiment was conducted to determine the changes in solid and soil solution phase properties of a representative Ultisol and Oxisol following applications of ground magnesium limestone (GML), gypsum and their combinations, and their effects on corn growth. A plot of pAl against lime potential (pH-1/2 pCa) showed that the points were mostly positioned between the theoretical lines for kaolinite-quartz and gibbsite equilibrium, reflecting the kaolinitic-oxidic mineralogy of the Ultisol and Oxisol. Gypsum application increased Al concentration in the soil solutions of the Ultisol, but had no significant effect on that of the Oxisol. The increase in Al concentration in the Ultisol was due to an increase in ionic strength. Gypsum application increased soil solution pH of the Oxisol due to release of OH as a result of ligand exchange between SO₄ and OH ions on the oxides of Fe and/or Al. Exchangeable Al in both soils was reduced by gypsum application. The reduction was associated with solid phase immobilization through alunite formation; the soil solutions of soil samples treated with 2 and 4 t gypsum ha⁻¹ were supersaturated with respect to alunite. Application of GML at 2 t ha⁻¹ together with 1–2t gypsum ha⁻¹ gave high top weight of corn. Relative top weight of corn was positively correlated with a soil solution Mg and Ca/Al concentration ratio, but negatively correlated with soil solution Al concentration. Foliar Al corn was positively correlated with soil solution Al concentration. Soil solution Al and Mg concentrations, and Ca/Al concentration ratio can be used as indices of soil acidity in Ultisols and Oxisols. ei]{gnB E}{fnClothier}     

Fine-tuning of sewage sludge application to promote the establishment of Pinus halepensis seedlings

Planting woody vegetation is frequently a first step towards the restoration of degraded drylands. Seedling establishment on unfertile soils may be favoured by applying organic amendments such as biosolids. But the outcome of such a practice is strongly dependent on the type of amendment and the application rate used. High application rates may have deleterious effects on plant performance and compromise plantation success. Thus amendment type and dose should be carefully selected to optimise benefits and minimize risks. In this study, we evaluated the effect of two organic amendments (composted and air-dried sewage sludge) applied at 5 doses (0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 Mg ha^?1) on soil properties and on the performance of 1-year-old Pinus halepensis seedlings planted in a dry Mediterranean degraded area. Soil organic matter, electrical conductivity and nutrient availability increased with the application rate, but the magnitude of this increase depended on the type of amendment and the time. Organic amendments improved N and P status and promoted seedling growth. Nevertheless, at the higher application rates they showed a negative impact on seedling survival 1 and 3 years after application. Drought effects intensified by root competition with extant vegetation and reduced water availability within the planting hole were the main causes attributed to the higher mortality. Low to moderate doses showed the best combination of seedling survival and growth and can thus be recommended to promote the establishment of P. halepensis in dry Mediterranean areas.     

Comparative regional-scale soil salinity assessment with near-ground apparent electrical conductivity and remote sensing canopy reflectance

Soil salinity is recognized worldwide as a major threat to agriculture, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Producers and decision makers need updated and accurate maps of salinity in agronomically and environmentally relevant ranges (i.e., <20 dS m⁻¹, when salinity is measured as electrical conductivity of the saturation extract, EC_e). State-of-the-art approaches for creating accurate EC_e maps beyond field scale (i.e., 1 km²) include: (i) Analysis Of Covariance (ANOCOVA) of near-ground measurements of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) and (ii) regression modeling of multi-year remote sensing canopy reflectance and other co-variates (e.g., crop type, annual rainfall). This study presents a comparison of the two approaches to establish their viability and utility. The approaches were tested using 22 fields (total 542 ha) located in California’s western San Joaquin Valley. In 2013 EC_a-directed soil sampling resulted in the collection of 267 soil samples across the 22 fields, which were analyzed for EC_e, ranging from 0 to 38.6 dS m⁻¹. The ANOCOVA EC_a-EC_e model returned a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.87 and root mean square prediction error (RMSPE) of 3.05 dS m⁻¹. For the remote sensing approach seven years (2007–2013) of Landsat 7 reflectance were considered. The remote sensing salinity model had R² = 0.73 and RMSPE = 3.63 dS m⁻¹. The robustness of the models was tested with a leave-one-field-out (lofo) cross-validation to assure maximum independence between training and validation datasets. For the ANOCOVA model, lofo cross-validation provided a range of scenarios in terms of RMSPE. The worst, median, and best fit scenarios provided global cross-validation R² of 0.52, 0.80, and 0.81, respectively. The lofo cross-validation for the remote sensing approach returned a R² of 0.65. The ANOCOVA approach performs particularly well at EC_e values <10 dS m⁻¹, but requires extensive field work. Field work is reduced considerably with the remote sensing approach, but due to the larger errors at low EC_e values, the methodology is less suitable for crop selection, and other practices that require accurate knowledge of salinity variation within a field, making it more useful for assessing trends in salinity across a regional scale. The two models proved to be viable solutions at large spatial scales, with the ANOCOVA approach more appropriate for multiple-field to landscape scales (1–10 km²) and the remote sensing approach best for landscape to regional scales (>10 km²).     

Short-term response of soil enzyme activities in a chlorpyrifos-treated mesocosm: Use of enzyme-based indexes

Soil enzyme activities have been long used as indicators of soil contamination, and their integration into numerical indexes of microbial functional diversity is a practical approach in the environmental risk assessment of soil pollutants. However, suitable numerical indexes need to be developed and standardized for monitoring deterioration of soil quality by agrochemicals. Herein, a mesocosm study was performed to examine short-term responses of selected soil enzyme activities to chlorpyrifos (Lorsban^® 4E). Hydrolases (carboxylesterase, acid phosphatase, β-glucosidase, urease and protease) and oxidoreductases (dehydrogenase and catalase) were measured in Andisols 14 d after an application with two doses (4.8 and 24 kg a.i. ha⁻¹) of chlorpyrifos. Both application rates caused a strong inhibition of carboxylesterase (62–78% of controls), acid phosphatase (56–60%) and β-glucosidase (43–58%) activities. Soil microbial activity was also reduced in pesticide-sprayed soils as indicated by the decreased dehydrogenase (47%) and catalase (38%) activities compared with control soils. However, only carboxylesterase activity showed a dose-dependent response with the chlorpyrifos application rate. An in vitro trial was further performed to provide evidence of a direct interaction between the enzyme (carboxylesterase, acid phosphatase and β-glucosidase) and the pesticide (chlorpyrifos and its main metabolites chlorpyrifos-oxon and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol). Results of these in vitro assays showed that the activity of carboxylesterase was directly affected by chlorpyrifos-oxon and, at less extend, by chlorpyrifos, whereas variations of both acid phosphatase and β-glucosidase activities were likely dependent on changes in microbial activity. Urease and protease activities did not change in pesticide-treated soils compared with pesticide-free soils. Despite the absence of response in these two N-cycling enzyme activities, four enzymatic indexes (geometric mean, weighted mean, “treated-soil quality index” [T-SQI] and “integrated biological response” [IBRv2] index) were significantly lower in the chlorpyrifos-sprayed soils compared with controls. Moreover, there was a significant (r² = 0.87, P < 0.0001) correlation between T-SQI and IBRv2 scores, which suggested that the IBRv2 index (an index used for assessing animal’s health inhabiting contaminated sites) may be a complementary index in soil quality assessment.     

Effects of grassland conversion to cropland and forest on soil organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon in the farming-pastoral ecotone of Inner Mongolia

Effects of grassland conversion to cropland and forest on soil organic carbon (SOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the farming-pastoral ecotone of Inner Mongolia were investigated by direct field sampling. SOC content and DOC content in soil decreased after grassland were shifted to forest or cropland, in the sequence of grassland soil > forest soil > cropland soil. SOC stock declined by 18% after grassland shifted from to forest. Reclamation of cropland for 10 years, 15 years and 20 years lost SOC in 0–30 cm soil layer, by 34%, 14% and 18%, respectively, compared with that of grassland. DOC in 3 soil layers was within 21.1–26.5 mg/L in grassland, 12.1–14.6 mg/L in forest soil, and 8.0–14.0 mg/L in cropland soil. Correlation analysis indicated that SOC content and DOC content were positively dependent on total nitrogen content (p < 0.05), but negatively on bulk density or land use type (p < 0.05). DOC was positively correlated SOC (p < 0.01). Moreover, SOC content could be quantitatively described by a linear combination of land use types (p = 0.000, r² = 0.712), and DOC content by a linear combination of two soil-related variables, land use types and SOC (p = 0.000, r² = 0.861).     

Neutralization and neoformation: Analogous processes in the atmosphere and in lichen thalli—A review

The present review discusses the concept of mineral neoformation which describes the formation of gypsum as the end-product of analogous processes occurring in the atmosphere, in the lichen thallus and on lithic substrates colonized by lichens. The formation of gypsum occurs as a result of H₂SO₄ reacting with CaCO₃. Climate change, e.g. global warming and desertification led to an increasing number of annual dust storms originating in North African deserts, from 5 days in 1958 to 30 days in 2006, i.e. sixfold in 48 years. Calcium is a major constituent of desert dust. The enlarged dust load in the Eastern Mediterranean coincides with the amount of calcium accumulated in lichens: from 6300 μg g⁻¹ in 1978 to 36,603 ± 7563 μg g⁻¹ in 2002, i.e. about sixfold in 24 years. Desert dust carrying Ca-containing particles reacts with sulfuric acid produced in the atmosphere following both volcanic and anthropogenic activities. Gypsum produced via neoformation in the atmosphere, precipitates in varying formations, e.g. iberulites. A process of neutralization leads to the formation of biominerals. CaCO₃-containing particles entrapped in the lichen thallus react with sulfuric acid to produce gypsum as its end-product, detected in the form of crystals on the outer surface of the thallus. The formation of biogenic gypsum occurs also via the reaction of intra- and extracellular Ca²⁺ cations with SO₄²⁻ anions, penetrating into, or found inside thallial cells. The catalytic capability of lichens is evident in the process of neoformation of gypsum on lithic substrates, e.g. granite.     

Effect of different fertilization modes on soil organic carbon sequestration in paddy fields in South China: A meta-analysis

Evidences have shown that fertilizer application could affect soil organic carbon (SOC) content in cropland. South China is the main production region of rice, in which many different fertilization practices have been widely used during the last several decades, but the effect of different fertilization modes on SOC sequestration in paddy fields in this region was scarcely studied. Based on 274 samples taken from 44 paddy field experimental sites in South China, a meta-analysis was performed to quantify the relative annual change of SOC content (RAC) and SOC sequestration duration in paddy fields under five fertilization modes (inorganic nitrogen fertilization, N; inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization, NP; inorganic nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilization, NPK; organic fertilization, O; and inorganic combined with organic fertilization, OF). The results showed that the RAC under the five fertilization modes was 0–0.4 g kg⁻¹ yr⁻¹, with increments of 0.19 and 0.23 g kg⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in double cropping systems and triple cropping systems, respectively. The RAC under the O and OF treatments was higher than that under the N, NP and NPK treatments and was the highest (0.32 g kg⁻¹ yr⁻¹) under OF among the five treatments. The SOC accumulation rate decreased with time, and the SOC sequestration duration under N, NP, NPK, O and OF was approximately 23, 28, 46, 64 and 55 years, respectively. The accumulation enhancement rate of SOC over the whole SOC sequestration period under the N, NP, NPK, O and OF treatments was approximately 12.9%, 23.4%, 29.3%, 47.2% and 55.1%, respectively. The OF treatment performed the largest potential for SOC sequestration in paddy fields in South China under long-term conditions.