黄山野生短尾猴理毛发生部位的差异

理毛行为是指动物个体用双手或单手从自身或其他个体的毛发中检出颗粒物并放入嘴里咀嚼或直接用嘴进行清理的过程,在灵长类动物社会中普遍存在且频繁发生。本研究以栖息于安徽黄山的野生短尾猴（Macaca thibetana）为研究对象,于2019年7-12月采用目标动物取样法采集行为数据,通过比较自我理毛和社会理毛的发生部位和发生过程,期望揭示该物种理毛行为发生部位的差异性。结果显示,短尾猴的社会理毛发生频率及平均持续时间均显著高于自我理毛。自我理毛多采用双手或单手的方式,而社会理毛则更倾向于使用双手。自我理毛大多分布于后肢前部、后肢后部以及手臂前部等部位,而社会理毛则更多的分布于背部、脸部、躯干侧部、手臂后部等部位。就理毛过程而言,自我理毛选择身体部位的随机性较强,而社会理毛则呈现明显的差异性,短尾猴社会理毛行为开始偏好在背部和脸部,结束部位则更多集中于背部。结果表明,野生短尾猴自我理毛和社会理毛在行为方式、发生过程以及部位选择上均呈现显著差异,很大程度上取决于动物个体自身所能接触的部位。同时,结果提示,两个个体参与的社会理毛行为发生过程中可能体现出参与理毛个体的社会关系的变化特征,为认识和理解理毛行为的社会功能提供更多的基础依据。     

野生藏酋猴理毛行为与肠道寄生虫感染的关系

理毛行为是灵长类动物群体中普遍存在且频繁发生的行为模式,越来越多的研究证实,对理毛者来说为其他个体理毛不再是一种低代价的投资,其主要原因是理毛行为能够增加寄生虫感染的潜在风险。然而,理毛行为感染何种类型寄生虫及其感染风险如何仍值得进一步研究。本研究以栖息于安徽黄山的野生藏酋猴(Macaca thibetana)为研究对象,采集动物个体的粪便样品并检测其中寄生虫的种类,通过分析理毛行为与寄生虫感染的关系,探讨理毛者在理毛投资过程中的潜在风险。结果显示,野生藏酋猴共感染了11种寄生虫,感染线虫(Capillaria spp., Trichostrongylus spp.)和结肠小袋纤毛虫(Balantidium coli)的风险最高(均为93%),感染鞭虫(Trichuris trichura)的风险次之(54%)。基于两两个体之间的理毛关系,研究发现,发起理毛行为时间越长感染结肠小袋纤毛虫的概率越高;接收理毛行为时间越长,感染蛔虫的概率越低。基于理毛行为网络的分析发现,理毛网络中节点强度较高的个体感染结肠小袋纤毛虫的概率最高。本研究不仅有助于认识和理解野生藏酋猴寄生虫感染状况,也为深入理...     

笼养黑叶猴的相互理毛行为

2001年7月1日至8月31日,应用焦点动物观察法和全事件行为记录法对广西南宁动物园灵长类繁殖中心的一群黑叶猴的相互理毛行为进行了分析,从中探讨其在黑叶猴社群中的功能。在27d的观察中(有效观察时间162h),共收集了663次相互理毛行为回合的数据。结果表明,相互理毛行为主要集中在无法进行自我理毛的部位,易于进行自我理毛的部位得到相对较少的相互理毛,这与卫生假说相一致。研究表明相互理毛行为主要由理毛者发起和结束。在不同的性别年龄组中,相互理毛行为主要发生在成年雌性个体之间。虽然相互理毛行为受到社会等级的影响,但等级序位最高的个体并非最具吸引力的理毛伙伴,发生在等级序位低的个体间的相互理毛行为明显多于发生在它们与序位高的个体间的理毛行为。     

滇金丝猴雌性个体间的理毛行为

相互理毛行为广泛存在于社会性群居灵长类动物中,通常具有清洁卫生和社会交往功能。2012 年10 月至2013 年6 月,我们在云南白马雪山国家级自然保护区对一人工辅助投食滇金丝猴群,采用全事件取样法和焦点动物取样法收集了雌性个体间相互理毛的行为数据,包括理毛的部位、理毛的姿势、理毛的时间和回合数。研究结果表明:滇金丝猴雌性个体之间每次相互理毛的平均时间为5. 7 min。相互理毛部位较多的发生在自我理毛不能进行(达到)的部位(61.1% );在不能自我理毛部位的相互理毛行为持续时间长,平均9.7 min;在个体能够进行自我理毛部位的相互理毛持续时间短,平均为3. 2 min。相互理毛的姿势以对坐为主(48. 4% ),不同理毛姿势的理毛时间差异显著。新迁入家庭单元的雌性个体为理毛的首先发起者,但其获得被理毛的时间却并不多。滇金丝猴雌性个体相互理毛部位、理毛姿势和理毛时间的差异表明,它们之间的相互理毛行为符合卫生功能假说和社会功能假说。     

临床常见皮肤癣菌的特征和鉴定

皮肤癣菌又称皮肤丝状真菌,有下列三属（见表1）,都只侵犯体表角化组织（皮肤、毛发、指甲和染菌物体而感染。 1 毛癣菌属 1．1 红色毛癣菌 直接镜检皮屑及甲屑,分支、分隔的菌丝有时可断裂或关节孢子状。毛发：发外型感染表现为发外孢子排列成串;少数为发内型感染,孢子在发内排列成链状。毛发穿孔试验阴性。     

社会关系和性关系中的自我理毛行为

有很多观点解释了动物自我理毛的作用。例如,动物通过自我理毛可以清除在与附近的同种异性接触期间传播来的寄生虫,当嗅出同种异性的气味时也可能自我理毛,因为自我理毛是一种动物在逃避还是战斗之间所面临的进退两难选择时表现出来的改向行为。动物可以通过自我理毛缓解紧张,因而是一种缓解冲动的方式。在其它情况下,动物自我理毛可能表示对同种个体的反应,它们在不同场合下普遍存在自我理毛行为,表明这种行为有多种功能。因此,在这篇综述中,作者尽量避免自我理毛具有其它功能的争议,我们无意把自我理毛看成一种仅仅是对焦虑和紧张的反应、降低体温的机制,或者是一种护理体表的行为,我们也感到这种观点没有新意,这种有局限性的观点不支持自我理毛行为具有多种功能。我们在本文中更多关注的是自我理毛的特定背景,即当一个个体遇到同种个体的气味而出现的自我理毛行为[动物学报5l（5）：772-779,2005]。     

假如你有一条动物的舌头

正舌头能帮你说话,帮你品尝,帮你吃东西,还能帮你清洁牙齿。如果你愿意,它还能当你的"身份证",因为没有谁的舌头和你的一模一样。你的舌头这么有用,动物的舌头也不差。有些动物的舌头还拥有你想象不到的功能。假如你有一条动物的舌头,我可要提醒你,别被自己的本领吓到啊!许多动物用舌头互相舔毛来表示友好。舔毛可以梳理被毛,并舔去灰尘或污渍,起到洗澡的作用。猴子在互相整理毛发的同时,还会不断地用舌头舔食毛发根部皮肤上析出来的盐粒。人们以为它们是在捉寄生虫,其实它们在做一件双赢的事,既能减少对方因为皮肤受刺激产生的痒痒感,又能舔食微量元素和矿物质。     

灵长类相互理毛的影响因素、功能及其利益分析

理毛行为是动物行为学研究的主要内容之一,根据理毛的对象可分为自我理毛(Autogrooming)和相互理毛(Allogrooming),其中相互理毛是灵长类重要的社会行为。现在认为相互理毛可能与社会参量(亲缘关系、性别、年龄、等级制度、繁殖状况等)有联系,并且有一定的社会功能。本文论述了理毛行为的分类、影响相互理毛的因素、相互理毛功能假说及其相互理毛的投入-收益分析,以便人们对相互理毛的行为进行更深入的研究。     

扁颅蝠(Tylonycteris pachypus)和褐扁颅蝠(T.robustula)理毛行为比较及其与体表寄生虫的关系

理毛行为是动物防御寄生虫感染有效的行为策略之一。通过室内行为观察,对扁颅蝠(Tylonycteris pachypus)和褐扁颅蝠(T.robustula)的理毛行为进行了研究,分析理毛行为的种间差异,以及体表寄生虫负荷量对理毛行为的影响。结果发现,扁颅蝠和褐扁颅蝠理毛行为主要可分为舔拭及抓挠,两种蝙蝠舔拭行为的频次和持续时长均大于抓挠行为。舔拭和抓挠行为的频次具有种间差异,扁颅蝠舔拭行为的频次高于褐扁颅蝠,但是其抓挠行为频次则低于后者;而舔拭行为和抓挠行为的持续时长无种间差异。两种蝙蝠体表寄生虫负荷量与理毛行为的总时长和总频次均无相关性。这些结果表明,扁颅蝠和褐扁颅蝠的理毛行为可能受到中枢神经调控及外部刺激的共同作用。     

川金丝猴的相互理毛行为是否具有卫生功能

应用目标动物取样法,在113天的跟踪观察（有效观察时间351小时）的基础上,收集了293个相互理毛回合（bout)的数据,对秦岭川金丝猴（Rhinopithecus roxellana）玉皇庙西梁群个体间的相互理毛进行了分析,检验相互理毛是否符合卫生功能假说（Hygienic functional hypothesis)。在分析数据前我们将标本的体表分为17部分,并定义了各部分的界限和其所占全身表面积百分比。根据自我理毛行为在身体表面各部位可进行的难易程度,将其分为不可进行,难以进行和易于进行部位的三种类型。为了了解相互理毛是否集中在自我理毛不容易进行的部位,我们做了三个相应的分析：自我理毛在全身的分配,各部位得到相互理毛的情况,不同年龄性别组得到相互理毛的情况。结果表明限法进行自我理毛的部位得到相对多的相互理毛,难以进行自我理毛的部位得到相互理毛百分比与其占总表面百分比相一致,易于进行部位得到相对少的相互理毛。这种自我理毛与相互理毛之间的补偿关系符合卫生假说。但是并非所有难以或无法进行自我理毛的部位得到均匀的相互理毛,相互理毛主要集中在背部和肛门繁殖区,不同年龄性别组的相互理毛受到社会等级的影响,相互理毛的这种选择性分配,说明除了有卫生功能外还应该有其它的功能含义。     

Benefits to Female Helpers in Wild Rhinopithecus roxellana

To assess what female Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) gain from allowing others to care for their infants, we collected behavioral data on 12 mother-infant dyads at Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve in the Qinling Mountains, China. Mothers’ feeding time significantly increased when infants were cared for by other group members versus when they were cared for by the mothers themselves. The time mothers spent autogrooming and receiving grooming also increased when they were temporarily relieved of maternal duties; however, mothers did not groom other individuals more when they were not encumbered by infants. There are several benefits that mothers gain from having helpers care for their infants: They gain more time to feed and thus increase their feeding efficiency. Mothers have more time to engage in hygienic and maintenance activities because they autogroom and receive allogrooming more. Lastly, mothers save energy when their infants are with helpers. Wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkey mothers meet their basic survival and maintenance needs because of helping behavior.     

Grooming site preferences in wild white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar)

During a four-month study of wild white-handed gibbons in Thailand one group was observed for 131 hr. The individuals spent 5.2% of their activity period allogrooming. Several body sites received more respectively less allogrooming than expected. Surface areas easy to clean by autogrooming such as the belly received significantly less allogrooming than expected. Upper body areas which are likely to be infested by parasites and other matter received significantly more allogrooming than lower body parts. Thus, grooming in gibbons seems to reflect a primarily hygienic function.     

Allogrooming Behavior and Grooming Site Preferences in Captive Bonobos (Pan paniscus): Association with Female Dominance

I tested the utility of Seyfarth's (1977) model of rank-related attractiveness to explain the distribution of allogrooming behavior among captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). Adult female bonobos generally have high social status and may be dominant over males. As predicted by the model, I found that high-ranking adult females received most allogrooming within each of the four investigated groups. Among adult female-adult female dyads, however, allogrooming was not clearly associated with dominance rank. Contradictory to predictions of the model, the highest-ranking females were responsible for most displacements over allogrooming, and grooming competition is positively correlated with dominance rank. In the second part of this study, I investigated the social significance of allogrooming body site preferences. Bonobos direct significantly most allogrooming to the face of conspecifics, and high- and low-ranking individuals, as well as males and females, differ significantly in their preferences for certain allogrooming sites. Subordinates and males tended to avoid facial grooming and preferred the back and anogenital region, while high-ranking individuals and females directed most allogrooming to the face and head of grooming partners. Data from this study support the hypothesis that high-ranking females are the most attractive grooming partners within a female-centered bonobo society. Many other aspects of allogrooming behavior, however, are not consistent with the model of rank-related attractiveness.     

Allogrooming behavior inCercocebus torquatus: The case for the hygienic functional hypothesis

The hygienic functional hypothesis of allogrooming behavior was examined in two captive groups (N=9 andN=8) of white-crowned mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus lunulatus) by analyzing: (1) the corporal distribution of manipulation type according to hair density, and (2) the corporal distribution of allogrooming according to presence of wounds. In both groups the sites with higher hair density received more bouts of Superficial Grooming, which implies a tactile screening of a fragment of the body surface. Only one group tended to emit more allogrooming on the body sites when they were wounded. In the other group, however, the number of wounds was very small and the wounds concentrated predominantly on those sites which were accessible to the subject itself. Thus, our results may be consistent with the hygienic functional hypothesis of allogrooming behavior in general and with the sanitary one in particular.     

Handedness and Grooming in Pan troglodytes: Comparative Analysis Between Findings in Captive and Wild Individuals

Grooming is a complex set of motor actions, common in highly social primates. We tested for asymmetries in hand use during unimanual and bimanual allogrooming in 215 captive chimpanzees. In addition to hand use, we coded in the ethogram whether the manual grooming action co-occurred with the use of the mouth. Overall, grooming did not elicit strong handedness at the individual level, but there is a small yet significant population-level right-hand bias for bimanual grooming. Mouth use during grooming had no influence on hand use. A comparison of the findings with previously published data on handedness for grooming in wild chimpanzees suggests that wild apes are more right-handed than captive individuals are for allogrooming. Collectively, the results suggest that role differentiation of the hands is an important factor in the assessment of handedness for grooming, and perhaps additional manual actions of chimpanzees and other primates.     

Differential effects of ambient temperature and humidity on allogrooming, self-grooming, and scratching in wild Japanese macaques

This study presents data on the effects of variations in ambient temperature and humidity on behaviors related to the care of the pelage (allogrooming, self-grooming, and scratching) in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui). The amount of time monkeys spent allogrooming was essentially unaffected by variations in ambient temperature and relative humidity. Frequency of scratching and, to a lesser extent, time spent self-grooming significantly increased when ambient temperature and/or relative humidity increased. These results are interpreted in relation to the differences in ultimate function that exist between allogrooming (with both hygienic and social functions) and self-grooming and scratching (with a solely hygienic function).     

Embraces and Grooming in Captive Spider Monkeys

Relatively little information is available regarding the role of social grooming and embraces in spider monkeys that live in fission-fusion societies in which individuals are usually split into subgroups. We investigated whether embraces and grooming have similar roles in captive spider monkeys by examining their occurrence in two contexts. One context was fusion, i.e. when the monkeys moved into an area of the enclosure where other monkeys were present, in which individuals from different subgroups were expected to exchange greeting behavior. The other context was the access to young infants, in which females were expected increase their friendly behavior toward mothers. We collected data by observing all individuals within a subgroup and via focal animal sampling. We found that overall embraces occurred more frequently than grooming and that their distributions were not correlated. The frequency of embraces was positively associated with the number of fusion events per observation, whereas the frequency of grooming bouts was not. Furthermore, embraces were more frequent following initial approaches after fusion versus subsequent approaches, and the figure was higher than the corresponding one for grooming. Mothers received more embraces after than before the birth of their infants, whereas there was no such effect for grooming. Embraces, but not grooming, play a role in the regulation of social relationships in spider monkeys. Embraces may serve as signals of benign disposition in contexts that are likely to be associated with tension, such as fusion and access to infants.     

Effects of Relatedness,Dominance, Age,and Association on Reciprocal Allogrooming by Captive Impala

Wild impala display a highly reciprocal allogrooming system that, by virtue of its frequency and high degree of reciprocity, is unique among ungulates. A herd of 35 free-ranging captive impala provided opportunity to examine the degree of reciprocity of allogrooming exchanges and the influence of relatedness, dominance, age and association on partner preferences and distribution of grooming between allogrooming partners. As in wild impala, the exchange of allogrooming bouts in the captive impala was highly reciprocal regardless of partners. Kinship and dominance had no influence on partner preference or distribution of grooming between partners. Although mothers showed a significant preference to allogroom with their unweaned offspring, this preference practically disappeared with older offspring. Age-mates (no greater than 6 mo apart) tended to associate with one another and spatial proximity was positively correlated with grooming partner preference. It was not clear whether impala actively sought out age-mates for grooming, or randomly chose grooming partners from nearby age-mates. The failure to find a role for kinship and dominance is counter to what has generally been found in most Old World terrestrial primate studies. The absence of pronounced social influences, coupled with the known effectiveness of grooming in removing ectoparasites, suggest that a utilitarian role, especially removal of ticks, is an important function of the impala reciprocal allogrooming system.