The TWEAK-Fn14 system: breaking the silence of cytokine-induced skeletal muscle wasting

The occurrence of skeletal muscle atrophy, a devastating complication of a large number of disease states and inactivity/disuse conditions, provides a never ending quest to identify novel targets for its therapy. Proinflammatory cytokines are considered the mediators of muscle wasting in chronic diseases; however, their role in disuse atrophy has just begun to be elucidated. An inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK), has recently been identified as a potent inducer of skeletal muscle wasting. TWEAK activates various proteolytic pathways and stimulates the degradation of myofibril protein both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, TWEAK mediates the loss of skeletal muscle mass and function in response to denervation, a model of disuse atrophy. Adult skeletal muscle express very low to minimal levels of TWEAK receptor, Fn14. Specific catabolic conditions such as denervation, immobilization, or unloading rapidly increase the expression of Fn14 in skeletal muscle which in turn stimulates the TWEAK activation of various catabolic pathways leading to muscle atrophy. In this article, we have discussed the emerging roles and the mechanisms of action of TWEAK-Fn14 system in skeletal muscle with particular reference to different models of muscle atrophy and injury and its potential to be used as a therapeutic target for prevention of muscle loss.     

The TWEAK–Fn14 system is a critical regulator of denervation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in mice

Skeletal muscle atrophy occurs in a variety of clinical settings, including cachexia, disuse, and denervation. Inflammatory cytokines have been shown to be mediators of cancer cachexia; however, the role of cytokines in denervation- and immobilization-induced skeletal muscle loss remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that a single cytokine, TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK), mediates skeletal muscle atrophy that occurs under denervation conditions. Transgenic expression of TWEAK induces atrophy, fibrosis, fiber-type switching, and the degradation of muscle proteins. Importantly, genetic ablation of TWEAK decreases the loss of muscle proteins and spared fiber cross-sectional area, muscle mass, and strength after denervation. Expression of the TWEAK receptor Fn14 (fibroblast growth factor–inducible receptor 14) and not the cytokine is significantly increased in muscle upon denervation, demonstrating an unexpected inside-out signaling pathway; the receptor up-regulation allows for TWEAK activation of nuclear factor κB, causing an increase in the expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase MuRF1. This study reveals a novel mediator of skeletal muscle atrophy and indicates that the TWEAK–Fn14 system is an important target for preventing skeletal muscle wasting.     

Myogenin and class II HDACs control neurogenic muscle atrophy by inducing E3 ubiquitin ligases

Maintenance of skeletal muscle structure and function requires innervation by motor neurons, such that denervation causes muscle atrophy. We show that myogenin, an essential regulator of muscle development, controls neurogenic atrophy. Myogenin is upregulated in skeletal muscle following denervation and regulates expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligases MuRF1 and atrogin-1, which promote muscle proteolysis and atrophy. Deletion of myogenin from adult mice diminishes expression of MuRF1 and atrogin-1 in denervated muscle and confers resistance to atrophy. Mice lacking histone deacetylases (HDACs) 4 and 5 in skeletal muscle fail to upregulate myogenin and also preserve muscle mass following denervation. Conversely, forced expression of myogenin in skeletal muscle of HDAC mutant mice restores muscle atrophy following denervation. Thus, myogenin plays a dual role as both a regulator of muscle development and an inducer of neurogenic atrophy. These findings reveal a specific pathway for muscle wasting and potential therapeutic targets for this disorder.     

沉默Dnmt1基因表达诱导大白鼠骨髓间充质干细胞向心肌样细胞分化

骨髓间充质干细胞(MSCs)具有向心肌样细胞分化的潜能.本室前期研究发现,MSCs在体外经DNA甲基转移酶(Dnmt)抑制剂5-氮胞苷诱导可分化为心肌样细胞.本研究证明,沉默DNA甲基化转移酶1（Dnmt1）基因表达,可诱导大鼠MSCs向心肌样细胞分化.本文采用表达Dnmt1 siRNA 慢病毒感染MSCs,沉默Dnmt1表达.DNA甲基化分析显示,随着沉默Dnmt1时间延长（7-28 d）,Gata-4基因上游DNA调控序列的CpG甲基化水平明显降低,而Gata-4 mRNA的转录水平明显上调,说明敲减Dnmt1表达导致Gata-4基因激活.蛋白质印迹和/或免疫细胞化学揭示,与对照组比较,心肌相关基因MHC 和cTnT表达上调, 而骨髓干细胞标志物CD90和CD29随转染时间延长表达下调.同时,实时定量PCR显示,心肌早期发育调控基因Nkx2.5 mRNA水平与Gata-4 mRNA相同,随表达Dnmt1 siRNA的慢病毒感染而上调.上述结果提示,敲减Dnmt1可降低心肌发育调控基因Gata-4启动子CpG岛的甲基化水平,上调Gata-4基因的表达,诱导骨髓间充质干细胞向心肌样分化.     

Fibroblast growth factor inducible 14 (Fn14) is required for the expression of myogenic regulatory factors and differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes. Evidence for TWEAK-independent functions of Fn14 during myogenesis

Fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14), distantly related to tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily and a receptor for TWEAK cytokine, has been implicated in several biological responses. In this study, we have investigated the role of Fn14 in skeletal muscle formation in vitro. Flow cytometric and Western blot analysis revealed that Fn14 is highly expressed on myoblastic cell line C2C12 and mouse primary myoblasts. The expression of Fn14 was decreased upon differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes. Suppression of Fn14 expression using RNA interference inhibited the myotube formation in both C2C12 and primary myoblast cultures. Fn14 was required for the transactivation of skeletal alpha-actin promoter and the expression of specific muscle proteins such as myosin heavy chain fast type and creatine kinase. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of Fn14 receptor in C2C12 myoblasts decreased the levels of myogenic regulatory factors MyoD and myogenin upon induction of differentiation. Conversely, overexpression of MyoD increased differentiation in Fn14-knockdown C2C12 cultures. Suppression of Fn14 expression in C2C12 myoblasts also inhibited the differentiation-associated increase in the activity of serum response factor and RhoA GTPase. In addition, our data suggest that the role of Fn14 during myogenic differentiation could be independent of TWEAK cytokine. Collectively, our study suggests that the Fn14 receptor is required for the expression of myogenic regulatory factors and differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes.     

Expression of ARPP-16/19 in rat denervated skeletal muscle

It is known that denervation of rat skeletal muscle causes atrophy and this is often adopted as a model for human muscle atrophy. To understand the molecular changes that occur, it is important to identify the profiles of differential gene expression. In the present study, we investigated differentially expressed genes in denervated muscle using DNA microarrays with printed genes preferentially expressed in skeletal muscle. We found that several genes are differentially expressed. Of these genes, ARPP-16/19 (cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein 16/19) is selectively enhanced after denervation. The expression of ARPP-16/19 in denervated muscles starts to increase from two days after denervation surgery. On the other hand, the expression of ARPP-16/19 does not change in hind-limb suspended muscles, such as EDL and soleus muscles. These results suggest that the increase in ARPP-16/19 mRNA expression is regulated by unknown factor(s) secreted from nerves, and not by electrical muscle activity.     

5-Aza-dC在mES细胞向生殖细胞分化中的DNA甲基化调控机制

目的: 探讨小鼠胚胎干细胞(mouse embryonic stem cells, mESCs)向生殖细胞(Embryonic germ cells,EG)分化过程中5-杂氮-2'-脱氧胞苷(5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine,5-Aza-dC) 对DNA甲基化转移酶Dnmt1和Dnmt3a及生殖细胞特征基因Mvh表达变化的DNA甲基化调控机制。方法:将mES细胞分化形成拟胚体(embryoid bodies, EBs) 作为向生殖细胞分化的启动步骤,采用不同浓度(0.05μmol/L,0.1μmol/L,0.5μmol/L,1μmol/L,3μmol/L)处理EBs,RT-PCR实时荧光定量RT-PCR和Western blot分别检测检测在5-Aza-dC处理前后Dnmt1和Dnmt3a在ES细胞和EBs中的表达,甲基化特异性PCR(MSP)检测原始生殖细胞分化特征基因Mvh启动子甲基化状态。结果: 5-Aza-dC的浓度在0.05 μmol/L~1 μmol/L之间时,EBs保持较高的存活率而EBs的形态明显发生了变化;5-Aza-dC 处理后, Dnmt1和Dnmt3a在EBs中mRNA表达量明显降低,其变化特点与WB结果相一致。MSP和测序结果显示, Mvh启动子区表现为部分甲基化,5-Aza-dC 处理后的4d EBs中Mvh CpG岛有4个CG位点发生突变,而mES细胞中未见突变。结论: EBs经5-Aza-dC处理后,Dnmt1和Dnmt3a的表达明显下调;同时,Mvh启动子发生部分甲基化,有可能启动了向生殖细胞的分化进程。