O-糖基化起始糖基转移酶的活性与结构研究

多肽：N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶（ppGalNAc-T） 是催化N-乙酰氨基半乳糖（GalNAc）结合到蛋白质Ser或Thr上的糖基转移酶,是黏蛋白型O-糖基化修饰的起始糖基转移酶。ppGalNAc-T是一个酶家族,表达产物均为Ⅱ型膜蛋白。虽然氨基酸序列高度同源,但各成员具有独特的底物特异性和动力学特征。因此,ppGalNAc-T的底物作用机制是O-糖基化研究领域中的关键课题。近年来,通过利用定点突变及晶体结构解析技术,ppGalNAc-T中与底物相互作用的重要氨基酸残基以及由这些残基所形成的对底物结合起关键作用的空间构象逐渐被揭示,为了解ppGalNAc-T酶家族的底物作用机制及其蛋白结构与催化活性间的关系提供了理论依据。     

黏蛋白型O-聚糖在人类肿瘤中的结构异常及生物学功能

黏蛋白是细胞表面的或分泌的、具有高度O-糖基化修饰的糖蛋白.在黏蛋白中,O-聚糖(O-glycan)是通过N-乙酰氨基半乳糖与丝氨酸或苏氨酸之间形成α连接,该结构即被称为黏蛋白型O-聚糖.黏蛋白型O-聚糖是由多肽∶N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶(ppGalNAc-T)家族催化起始合成的,近年来,该酶的催化机制及结构特点已成为糖基转移酶研究的热点.在肿瘤中常常伴随着黏蛋白型O-聚糖结构上和数量上的改变,形成肿瘤特异聚糖结构(cancer-associated glycans),如肿瘤Tn和T抗原等.肿瘤特异聚糖使肿瘤细胞的抗原性和黏附能力发生改变,促进肿瘤细胞的恶性增生与转移.而这些肿瘤特异聚糖结构,也为肿瘤的诊断与抗肿瘤药物或疫苗开发提供了理论基础.     

疾病及发育中多肽:N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶ppGalNAc-T的重要性

蛋白质的O-GalNAc糖基化是生物体内广泛存在的一种重要的蛋白质翻译后修饰,参与了众多生命活动过程。多肽:N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶(ppGalNAc-T酶)是调控蛋白质O-GalNAc糖基化修饰的起始糖基转移酶,它催化N-乙酰氨基半乳糖(GalNAc)共价结合到蛋白质丝氨酸或苏氨酸的侧链羟基上,形成Tn糖链抗原结构。人体内ppGalNAc-T酶家族共有20个成员,各成员在不同的组织和细胞中的表达具有时空特异性,同时对其修饰的底物蛋白存在选择性。ppGalNAc-T酶的异常表达与组织器官发育,以及肿瘤、家族性钙质沉积、冠心病、阿尔兹海默症、先天性心脏病等复杂性疾病的发生发展密切相关。该文总结了近年来关于ppGalNAc-T酶在组织器官发育过程以及复杂性疾病发生发展中的研究概况,为深入理解ppGalNAc-T酶和O-糖基化的功能及其生物学意义提供参考。     

疾病及发育中多肽:N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶ppGalNAc-T的重要性

蛋白质的O-GalNAc糖基化是生物体内广泛存在的一种重要的蛋白质翻译后修饰,参与了众多生命活动过程。多肽:N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶(ppGalNAc-T酶)是调控蛋白质O-GalNAc糖基化修饰的起始糖基转移酶,它催化N-乙酰氨基半乳糖(GalNAc)共价结合到蛋白质丝氨酸或苏氨酸的侧链羟基上,形成Tn糖链抗原结构。人体内ppGalNAc-T酶家族共有20个成员,各成员在不同的组织和细胞中的表达具有时空特异性,同时对其修饰的底物蛋白存在选择性。ppGalNAc-T酶的异常表达与组织器官发育,以及肿瘤、家族性钙质沉积、冠心病、阿尔兹海默症、先天性心脏病等复杂性疾病的发生发展密切相关。该文总结了近年来关于ppGalNAc-T酶在组织器官发育过程以及复杂性疾病发生发展中的研究概况,为深入理解ppGalNAc-T酶及O-糖基化的功能及其生物学意义提供参考。     

GALNT14与肿瘤

在过去的一个多世纪,许多肿瘤标志物被发现,其中包括多肽N-乙酰半乳糖胺基转移酶(polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase,ppGALNAc-T,简称GALNT)家族中的多个成员。GALNT家族是催化黏蛋白O-糖基化修饰的起始酶,其能够影响黏蛋白的O-糖基化,从而影响肿瘤细胞的发生、预后、增殖与迁移等。GALNT14是该家族中最新发现的成员之一,近年的研究发现,GALNT14在多种肿瘤中表达异常,并与肿瘤细胞的发生、侵袭、转移和凋亡等有关。本文主要对GALNT14蛋白的结构特点及其在肿瘤中的作用进行综述,为进一步研究GALNT14与肿瘤发病机制的关系以及作为潜在的药物靶点提供参考。     

黏蛋白型O-聚糖：结构、功能及与肿瘤的相关性

黏蛋白是细胞表面的或分泌的、具有高度O-糖基化修饰的糖蛋白。黏蛋白型O-聚糖是由多肽：N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶（ppGalNAc-T）家族催化起始合成的,在肿瘤中常常伴随着黏蛋白型O-聚糖结构和数量上的改变,形成肿瘤特异聚糖结构（cancer-associated glycans）,如肿瘤Tn和T抗原等。肿瘤特异聚糖使肿瘤细胞的抗原性和黏附能力发生改变,促进肿瘤细胞的恶性增生与转移。而这些肿瘤特异聚糖结构,也为肿瘤的诊断与抗肿瘤药物或疫苗开发提供了理论基础。     

综述: 糖基转移酶超家族在肿瘤转移中的作用

蛋白质的糖基化修饰主要包括N-连接糖基化、O-连接糖基化和糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定连接．与核酸和蛋白质不同,糖链的合成过程并不遵循传统的基因信息传递的中心法则,主要由一系列催化糖苷键形成的糖基转移酶完成．异常糖基化修饰被认为与恶性肿瘤的发生发展和临床预后密切相关．研究表明,糖基转移酶的表达及其糖链结构的异常可通过调节肿瘤细胞与细胞外基质的相互作用,继而影响肿瘤转移的关键步骤,如上皮间质转化(E-钙黏着蛋白、N-钙黏着蛋白)、细胞的移动性(整合素β1和α5)、侵袭(基质金属蛋白酶MMPs)、浸润(唾液酸化Lewis抗原sLeX和sLeA)．本文主要就唾液酰基转移酶、岩藻糖基转移酶和N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶等三大糖基转移酶家族的结构和生物学功能及其在肿瘤转移中的作用作一综述,以期为肿瘤转移的预测和诊断提供新思路．     

糖基转移酶超家族在肿瘤转移中的作用

蛋白质的糖基化修饰主要包括N-连接糖基化、O-连接糖基化和糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定连接.与核酸和蛋白质不同,糖链的合成过程并不遵循传统的基因信息传递的中心法则,主要由一系列催化糖苷键形成的糖基转移酶完成.异常糖基化修饰被认为与恶性肿瘤的发生发展和临床预后密切相关.研究表明,糖基转移酶的表达及其糖链结构的异常可通过调节肿瘤细胞与细胞外基质的相互作用,继而影响肿瘤转移的关键步骤,如上皮间质转化(E-钙黏着蛋白、N-钙黏着蛋白)、细胞的移动性(整合素β1和α5)、侵袭(基质金属蛋白酶MMPs)、浸润(唾液酸化Lewis抗原sLeX和sLeA).本文主要就唾液酰基转移酶、岩藻糖基转移酶和N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶等三大糖基转移酶家族的结构和生物学功能及其在肿瘤转移中的作用作一综述,以期为肿瘤转移的预测和诊断提供新思路.     

多肽:N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶的结构和特性

多肽: N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶是催化O-聚糖合成的关键酶.它是一个大家族,拥有悠久的进化历史.随着研究的进展,它的结构和功能也越来越明确,催化特性也有了进一步了解.同时,它还有可能和帕金森病的发病机制有关.     

昆虫细胞内N-糖基化途径及人源化糖蛋白表达

虽然昆虫杆状病毒表达系统在蛋白表达领域得到了广泛的应用, 但由于不能表达复杂的末端唾液酸化的N-糖链, 使得该系统在生物制药行业的应用受到了很大的限制。通过比较哺乳动物细胞和昆虫细胞内糖基化途径可知, 其起始步骤一致, 之后再发生分化, 主要表现为3方面, 即昆虫细胞内缺乏哺乳动物细胞所具备的N-乙酰葡萄糖氨转移酶II、 半乳糖基转移酶/N-乙酰氨基半乳糖转移酶、α-2,3-唾液酸转移酶和α-2,6-唾液酸转移酶等延长N-糖链的糖基转移酶; 另外, 昆虫细胞内具有能够特异性地将蛋白质末端的N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖残基从GlcNAcMan3GlcNAc(±α3/6-Fuc)GlcNAc上切除的N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶及核心α-1,3-岩藻糖基转移酶。本文从上述异同出发, 综述了克服昆虫细胞内不能表达人源化糖蛋白这一缺陷所进行的N-糖基化途径的改造研究--主要集中在昆虫细胞内GlcNAcase的抑制和昆虫细胞内GnT2, GalT/ GalNAcT, ST3及ST6等基因的导入等方面, 结果表明经改造的昆虫细胞可表达人源化糖蛋白, 这将极大地拓宽昆虫杆状病毒表达系统的应用领域。本文还探讨了选择特殊细胞系及特殊培养条件以在昆虫细胞内表达唾液酸化蛋白的可行性。     

Control of mucin-type O-glycosylation: a classification of the polypeptide GalNAc-transferase gene family

Glycosylation of proteins is an essential process in all eukaryotes and a great diversity in types of protein glycosylation exists in animals, plants and microorganisms. Mucin-type O-glycosylation, consisting of glycans attached via O-linked N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) to serine and threonine residues, is one of the most abundant forms of protein glycosylation in animals. Although most protein glycosylation is controlled by one or two genes encoding the enzymes responsible for the initiation of glycosylation, i.e. the step where the first glycan is attached to the relevant amino acid residue in the protein, mucin-type O-glycosylation is controlled by a large family of up to 20 homologous genes encoding UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide GalNAc-transferases (GalNAc-Ts) (EC 2.4.1.41). Therefore, mucin-type O-glycosylation has the greatest potential for differential regulation in cells and tissues. The GalNAc-T family is the largest glycosyltransferase enzyme family covering a single known glycosidic linkage and it is highly conserved throughout animal evolution, although absent in bacteria, yeast and plants. Emerging studies have shown that the large number of genes (GALNTs) in the GalNAc-T family do not provide full functional redundancy and single GalNAc-T genes have been shown to be important in both animals and human. Here, we present an overview of the GalNAc-T gene family in animals and propose a classification of the genes into subfamilies, which appear to be conserved in evolution structurally as well as functionally.     

A novel human UDP-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase, GalNAc-T7, with specificity for partial GalNAc-glycosylated acceptor substrates.

A novel member of the human UDP-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase gene family, designated GalNAc-T7, was cloned and expressed. GalNAc-T7 exhibited different properties compared to other characterized members of this gene family, in showing apparent exclusive specificity for partially GalNAc-glycosylated acceptor substrates. GalNAc-T7 showed no activity with a large panel of non-glycosylated peptides, but was selectively activated by partial GalNAc glycosylation of peptide substrates derived from the tandem repeats of human MUC2 and rat submaxillary gland mucin. The function of GalNAc-T7 is suggested to be as a follow-up enzyme in the initiation step of O-glycosylation.     

The lectin domains of polypeptide GalNAc-transferases exhibit carbohydrate-binding specificity for GalNAc: lectin binding to GalNAc-glycopeptide substrates is required for high density GalNAc-O-glycosylation

Initiation of mucin-type O-glycosylation is controlled by a large family of UDP GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases (GalNAc-transferases). Most GalNAc-transferases contain a ricin-like lectin domain in the C-terminal end, which may confer GalNAc-glycopeptide substrate specificity to the enzyme. We have previously shown that the lectin domain of GalNAc-T4 modulates its substrate specificity to enable unique GalNAc-glycopeptide specificities and that this effect is selectively inhibitable by GalNAc; however, direct evidence of carbohydrate binding of GalNAc-transferase lectins has not been previously presented. Here, we report the direct carbohydrate binding of two GalNAc-transferase lectin domains, GalNAc-T4 and GalNAc-T2, representing isoforms reported to have distinct glycopeptide activity (GalNAc-T4) and isoforms without apparent distinct GalNAc-glycopeptide specificity (GalNAc-T2). Both lectins exhibited specificity for binding of free GalNAc. Kinetic and time-course analysis of GalNAc-T2 demonstrated that the lectin domain did not affect transfer to initial glycosylation sites, but selectively modulated velocity of transfer to subsequent sites and affected the number of acceptor sites utilized. The results suggest that GalNAc-transferase lectins serve to modulate the kinetic properties of the enzymes in the late stages of the initiation process of O-glycosylation to accomplish dense or complete O-glycan occupancy.     

Generation of intracellular single-chain antibodies directed against polypeptide GalNAc-transferase using a yeast two-hybrid system

Mucin-type O-glycosylation is initiated by a large number of UDP-GalNAc: polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases (GalNAc-T). Although extensive in vitro studies using synthetic peptides as substrates suggest that most GalNAc-Ts exhibit overlapping substrate specificities, many studies have shown that individual GalNAc-Ts play an important role in both animals and humans. Further investigations of the functions of individual GalNAc-Ts including in vivo substrate proteins and O-glycosylation sites are necessary. In this study, we attempted to generate single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibodies to bind to GalNAc-T1, T2, T3, and T4 using a yeast two-hybrid system for screening a naive chicken scFv library. Several different scFvs were isolated against a single target GalNAc-T isoform specifically under expressed in yeast and were confirmed to be expressed in mammalian cells and to retain binding activity inside the cells. Generation of these specific antibodies provides an opportunity to modify and exploit antibodies for specific applications in investigations of GalNAc-T functions.     

Expression of polypeptide GalNAc-transferases in stratified epithelia and squamous cell carcinomas: immunohistological evaluation using monoclonal antibodies to three members of the GalNAc-transferase family

Mucin-type O-glycosylation is initiated by a large family of UDP- GalNAc: polypeptide N -acetyl-galactosaminyltransferases (GalNAc- transferases). Individual GalNAc-transferases appear to have different functions and Northern analysis indicates that they are differently expressed in different organs. This suggests that O-glycosylation may vary with the repertoire of GalNAc-transferases expressed in a given cell. In order to study the repertoire of GalNAc-transferases in situ in tissues and changes in tumors, we have generated a panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) with well defined specificity for human GalNAc-T1, -T2, and -T3. Application of this panel of novel antibodies revealed that GalNAc- transferases are differentially expressed in different cell lines, in spermatozoa, and in oral mucosa and carcinomas. For example, GalNAc-T1 and -T2 but not -T3 were highly expressed in WI38 cells, and GalNAc-T3 but not GalNAc-T1 or -T2 was expressed in spermatozoa. The expression patterns in normal oral mucosa were found to vary with cell differentiation, and for GalNAc-T2 and -T3 this was reflected in oral squamous cell carcinomas. The expression pattern of GalNAc-T1 was on the other hand changed in tumors to either total loss or expression in cytological poorly differentiated tumor cells, where the normal undifferentiated cells lacked expression. These results demonstrate that the repertoire of GalNAc-transferases is different in different cell types and vary with cellular differentiation, and malignant transformation. The implication of this is not yet fully understood, but it suggests that specific changes in sites of O-glycosylation of proteins may occur as a result of changes in the repertoire of GalNAc-transferases.      

Polypeptide GalNAc-transferase T3 and familial tumoral calcinosis. Secretion of fibroblast growth factor 23 requires O-glycosylation

Mutations in the gene encoding the glycosyltransferase polypeptide GalNAc-T3, which is involved in initiation of O-glycosylation, were recently identified as a cause of the rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder familial tumoral calcinosis (OMIM 211900). Familial tumoral calcinosis is associated with hyperphosphatemia and massive ectopic calcifications. Here, we demonstrate that the secretion of the phosphaturic factor fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) requires O-glycosylation, and that GalNAc-T3 selectively directs O-glycosylation in a subtilisin-like proprotein convertase recognition sequence motif, which blocks processing of FGF23. The study suggests a novel posttranslational regulatory model of FGF23 involving competing O-glycosylation and protease processing to produce intact FGF23.     

Engineering mammalian mucin-type O-glycosylation in plants

Mucin-type O-glycosylation is an important post-translational modification that confers a variety of biological properties and functions to proteins. This post-translational modification has a particularly complex and differentially regulated biosynthesis rendering prediction and control of where O-glycans are attached to proteins, and which structures are formed, difficult. Because plants are devoid of GalNAc-type O-glycosylation, we have assessed requirements for establishing human GalNAc O-glycosylation de novo in plants with the aim of developing cell systems with custom-designed O-glycosylation capacity. Transient expression of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Glc(NAc) C4-epimerase and a human polypeptide GalNAc-transferase in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana resulted in GalNAc O-glycosylation of co-expressed human O-glycoprotein substrates. A chimeric YFP construct containing a 3.5 tandem repeat sequence of MUC1 was glycosylated with up to three and five GalNAc residues when co-expressed with GalNAc-T2 and a combination of GalNAc-T2 and GalNAc-T4, respectively, as determined by mass spectrometry. O-Glycosylation was furthermore demonstrated on a tandem repeat of MUC16 and interferon α2b. In plants, prolines in certain classes of proteins are hydroxylated and further substituted with plant-specific O-glycosylation; unsubstituted hydroxyprolines were identified in our MUC1 construct. In summary, this study demonstrates that mammalian type O-glycosylation can be established in plants and that plants may serve as a host cell for production of recombinant O-glycoproteins with custom-designed O-glycosylation. The observed hydroxyproline modifications, however, call for additional future engineering efforts.     

The lectin domain of UDP-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine: polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase-T4 directs its glycopeptide specificities

The initiation step of mucin-type O-glycosylation is controlled by a large family of homologous UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases (GalNAc-transferases). Differences in kinetic properties, substrate specificities, and expression patterns of these isoenzymes provide for differential regulation of O-glycan attachment sites and density. Recently, it has emerged that some GalNAc-transferase isoforms in vitro selectively function with partially GalNAc O-glycosylated acceptor peptides rather than with the corresponding unglycosylated peptides. O-Glycan attachment to selected sites, most notably two sites in the MUC1 tandem repeat, is entirely dependent on the glycosylation-dependent function of GalNAc-T4. Here we present data that a putative lectin domain found in the C terminus of GalNAc-T4 functions as a GalNAc lectin and confers its glycopeptide specificity. A single amino acid substitution in the lectin domain of a secreted form of GalNAc-T4 selectively blocked GalNAc-glycopeptide activity, while the general activity to peptides exerted by this enzyme was unaffected. Furthermore, the GalNAc-glycopeptide activity of wild-type secreted GalNAc-T4 was selectively inhibited by free GalNAc, while the activity with peptides was unaffected.     

The lectin domain of UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 1 is involved in O-glycosylation of a polypeptide with multiple acceptor sites

Mucin type O-glycosylation begins with the transfer of GalNAc to serine and threonine residues on proteins by a family of UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminlytransferases. These enzymes all contain a lectin-like (QXW)(3) repeat sequence at the C terminus that consists of three tandem repeats (alpha, beta, and gamma). The putative lectin domain of one of the most ubiquitous isozymes, GalNAc-T1, is reportedly not functional. In this report, we have reevaluated the role of the GalNAc-T1 lectin domain. Deletion of the lectin domain resulted in a complete loss of enzymatic activity. We also found that GalNAc-T1 has two activities distinguished by their sensitivities to inhibition with free GalNAc; one activity is sensitive, and the other is resistant. In our experiments, the former activity is represented by the O-glycosylation of apomucin, an acceptor that contains multiple glycosylation sites, and the latter is represented by synthetic peptides that contain a single glycosylation site. Site-directed mutagenesis of the lectin domain selectively reduced the former activity and identified Asp(444) in the alpha repeat as the most important site for GalNAc recognition. A further reduction of the GalNAc-inhibitable activity was observed when both Asp(444) and the corresponding aspartate residues in the beta and the gamma repeats were mutated. This suggests a cooperative involvement of each repeat unit in the glycosylation of polypeptides with multiple acceptor sites.     

Brain-specific expression of a novel human UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (GalNAc-T9)

We isolated cDNA coding for the ninth of the UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases (GalNAc-T9) from human brain by the polymerase chain reaction. The polypeptide encoded by GalNAc-T9 contained the structural features characteristic of GalNAc transferases, such as a GT1 motif, a Gal/GalNAc transferase motif, (QXW)(3) repeats, and conserved His, Cys, and acidic amino acid residues. Northern blot analysis revealed the mRNA expression of the enzyme to be confined to the brain. The brain-specific expression of GalNAc-T9 suggested that this isozyme catalyzes O-glycosylation in the brain.