Change of character of directed motor reactions of female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. to intraspecies signals under conditions of sensory pathology at different stages of adult ontogenesis

The character of motor activity of female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. was studied in norm and under conditions of inactivation of cercal organ at realization of reproductive and protective behavior at various steps of adult ontogenesis (at the 2nd, 7th, and 12th day). There are described and analyzed various forms of female motor reactions on a movable track-ball at presentation f models of male intraspecies call and aggressive signals. The reversible inactivation or cereal receptors was shown to lead to disturbance of mechanisms of realization of normal reproductive behavior in the end of prereproductive and in the beginning of reproductive periods of adult ontogenesis. This is manifested as a significant decrease of reactions of positive phonotaxis in response to presentation of model of the male call signal in individuals with experimental sensory pathology as compared with the control cricket group (norm). No significant differences in portions of typical directed motor reactions were established in norm and under conditions of sensory pathology at presentation of aggressive signal. Thus, we have managed to show that preservation of tympanal organ is the necessary, but not sufficient condition of realization of adequate acoustic reproductive behavior. Only by working together, the distant mechanoreceptor systems (the cereal and the tympanal ones) are able to provide adequate behavior. This confirmed to earlier put forward hypothesis about interaction of distant mechanoreceptor systems and about the existence of the single sensory complex necessary for realization of insect adequate behavior.     

Development of sexual and protective behavior of female crickets <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus argentinus</Emphasis> Sauss. at the prereproductive and reproductive periods of imaginal ontogenesis

Data are presented about the development of reproductive and defense behavior of noncopulated female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. in the beginning of the imaginal ontogeny. The character of interaction of females with “virtual” males (the “supporting ball” method-“trackball”) was studied. The forms of female motor reactions to models of intraspecies male sound signals-the calling and aggressive songs-are described and analyzed. The character of the development of female acoustic behavior is described as judged by change in the forms of motor reactions in the course of the imaginal ontogeny. It is shown that immediately after the imaginal molt the reproductive behavior is not formed yet but it matures gradually within a few days. At the early stages of the imaginal ontogeny passive defense behavior is found to be most clearly expressed.     

Change in the character of directional motor reactions of female crickets <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus argetinus</Emphasis> Sauss. to intraspecies signals under conditions of sensory pathology at different stages of imaginal ontogenesis

The character of motor activity of female crickets Gryllus argentinus Sauss. executing reproductive and defense behavior was studied under normal conditions and under conditions of inactivation of the cercal organ at different stages of imaginal ontogeny (on day 2, 7 and 12). Various forms of motor reactions of females placed on a movable spherical support to models of intraspecies calling and aggressive male signals were described and analyzed. Reversible inactivation of cercal receptors was shown to result in disturbance of the mechanisms of realization of normal reproductive behavior at the end of pre-reproductive and in the beginning of reproductive periods of imaginal ontogeny. It is manifested as statistically significant reduction of the proportion of positive phonotactic reactions in response to a model of the male calling song in animals with experimental sensory pathology as compared to control groups of crickets (the norm). No significant differences in proportions of typical directional motor reactions to presentation of the aggressive signal under normal conditions and under conditions of sensory pathology were found. Thus preservation of the tympanic organ was demonstrated to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for realization of adequate acoustic reproductive behavior. Only working together, distant mechanoreceptor systems (the cercal and tympanic ones) are able to provide adequacy of behavior. This conclusion confirmed the proposed earlier hypothesis about interaction of distant mechanoreceptor systems and about existence of an integrated sensory complex necessary for realization of adequate behavior of insects.     

The action of proinflammatory cytokines on formation of behavior during early postnatal ontogenesis

The study is devoted to the role of proinflammatory cytokine-interleukin-1beta during early postnatal ontogenesis in formation of behavioral programs. Cytokine was injected in pyrogenic and subpyrogenic doses during 1 week (1, 2 or 3 weeks of life). The behavior was tested in the young (40-45 days) and adult (3 months) rats in the "open field" and "elevated plus maze". The greatest behavior disordes (elevation of act's number and of motor activity, the decrease of investigation activity) are revealed in the young animals treated with IL-Ib during 1 and 3 weeks of life. These behavioral changes were marked in rats injected with pyrogenic and subpyrogenic doses of cytokine. They had a similar tendency in male and female rats. At the age of 3 months, behavior changes revealed in juvenile rats were insignificant.     

The sexual behavior of the primates]

The article presents the review of modern data of the field and laboratory investigations of primate sexual behavior, cyclicity, reproductive strategies and copulation in different primates taxa: strepsirrhini, platyrrhyni, catarrhini. The specific character, progressiveness and adaptation of some reproductive models are discussed by the authors. A problem of connection between dominance and reproductive success is also discussed, the role of sexual teaching in postnatal ontogenesis, age and hormonal status for expression of sexual behavior are analysed. Some forms of sexual declinations in primates are considered.     

Reproductive Energetics of Female Mantled Howlers (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta palliata</Emphasis>)

The energetic costs of reproduction have an important influence on the life histories of female primates. At present, however, the interplay of female reproductive state, food availability, and strategies aimed at maintaining energy balance has been described for only a few species, limiting our ability to understand intra- and interspecific variation in female life histories. We assessed how female mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata) are affected by reproductive seasonality, and whether they alter their behavior to cope with the energetic demands of reproduction. From August 2013 to July 2015 we measured the reproductive state, behavior (1100 h of focal animal observations), and energetic condition (312 urine samples collected for C-peptide analysis) of 7 adult females, and assessed food availability (weekly phenological sampling of 397 food trees). Female behavior did not vary with reproductive state or reproductive seasonality. There were, however, differences in how females responded to variation in food availability according to reproductive state. Cycling and gestating females spent more time feeding than lactating females, and cycling females less time resting than females in other reproductive states, when food was more available. C-peptide concentrations were unaffected by either individual or overall variation in reproductive state, except for cycling females, whose concentrations increased during periods of high food availability. The energetic condition of female mantled howlers is broadly maintained over different stages of reproduction, but is sensitive to variation in food availability.     

The number of active Purkinje cells in the microelectrod track as an indicator of maturity of the cerebellum motor function in precocial- and altricial-born animals

In experiments on 5 age groups of anesthetized guinea pigs (from newborns to 4 weeks of postnatal ontogenesis), activity of cerebellum Purkinje cells (PC) (IV-VII lobules of cerebellar vermis) was studied in the single track of microelectrode passing through cell layers. It has been shown that as early as several hours after birth, in the superficial layer of cerebellar cortex, there are recorded occasional background-active, but functionally mature PC represented by simple and complex spikes and accordingly reflecting synaptic PC activation by afferent inputs of mossy and climbing fibers. The functional manifestation of the guinea pig motor behavior at this period of ontogenesis is act of their standing. At this period of ontogenesis, in the newborn and one-day old guinea pigs, from 1 to rarely 11 active PC are recorded, on average, in the single microelectrode track. At the one-week age, the highest number active PC in the track somewhat increases, predominantly at the expense of the mean from the total number of the cells in the track. In the 2-week old guinea pigs the mean number of active PC in the track somewhat falls, while in the 4-week old and adult animals exceeds again, although slightly of the maximal number of PC in the track of newborn animals. The relatively high number of active PC at the very initial period of postnatal ontogenesis can indicate importance of motor function in the congenital food-procuring reflex.     

Neonatal neural organizing effects of exogenous corticosteroids on sexual differentiation of the brain in the female rat

Testosterone, deoxycorticosterone, or vehicle was administered neonatally to female Long-Evans rats. Parameters expressing the reproductive physiology and behavior of the adult animals were studied. It was found that neonatal administration of testosterone produced the expected "defeminization" and "masculinization" of the brain, affecting both the reproductive behavior and cyclicity of these females. In contrast, neonatal administration of the adrenal steroid did not affect cyclicity although it "defeminized" and "masculinized" sexual behavior, albeit to a lesser degree than testosterone. The results suggest a dichotomy in the neuroregulation of reproductive physiology and sexual behavior.     

The number of active Purkinje cells in the microelectrod track as an indicator of maturity of the cerebellum motor function in mature- and immature-born animals

In experiments on 5 age groups of anesthetized guinea pigs (from newborns to 4 weeks of postnatal ontogenesis), activity of cerebellum Purkinje cells (PC) (IV–VII lobules of cerebellar vermis) was studied in the single track of microelectrode passing through cell layers. It has been shown that as early as several hours after birth, in the superficial layer of cerebellar cortex, there are recorded occasional background-active, but functionally mature PC in the form of simple and complex spikes and accordingly reflecting synaptic PC activation by afferent inputs of mossy and climbing fibers. The functional manifestation of the guinea pig motor behavior at this period of ontogenesis is act of their standing. At this period of ontogenesis, in the newborn and one-day old guinea pigs, on average, from 1 to rarely 11 active PC are recorded in the single microelectrode track. At the one-week age, the highest number of active PC in the track somewhat increases, predominantly at the expense of the mean from the total number of cells in the track. In the 2-week old guinea pigs the mean number of active PC in the track somewhat falls, while in the 4-week old and adult animals it again exceeds, although slightly, the maximal number of PC in the track of newborn animals. The relatively high number of active PC at the very initial period of postnatal ontogenesis can indicate importance of motor function in the congenital food-procuring reflex.     

Effects of sperm conjugation and dissociation on sperm viability in vitro

Sperm conjugation is an unusual variation in sperm behavior where two or more spermatozoa physically unite for motility or transport through the female reproductive tract. Conjugation has frequently been interpreted as sperm cooperation, including reproductive altruism, with some sperm advancing their siblings toward the site of fertilization while ostensibly forfeiting their own ability to fertilize through damage incurred during conjugate break-up. Conversely, conjugation has been proposed to protect sensitive regions of spermatozoa from spermicidal conditions within the female reproductive tract. We investigated the possibility of dissociation-induced sperm mortality and tested for a protective function of conjugation using the paired sperm of the diving beetle, Graphoderus liberus. Sperm conjugates were mechanically dissociated and exposed to potentially damaging tissue extracts of the female reproductive tract and somatic tissue. We found no significant difference in viability between paired sperm and dissociated, single sperm. The results further indicate that the reproductive tract of female G. liberus might not be spermicidal and conjugation is not protective of sperm viability when damaging conditions do exist. Our results support the interpretation that, at least in some taxa, sperm conjugation is neither protective nor damaging to sperm viability.     

Localisation of serotonin and dopamine in Haemonchus contortus

Serotonin and dopamine play important roles in the biology of nematodes where they exert their effect on feeding, locomotion and reproductive behavior. Haemonchus contortus, a parasitic nematode which infects small ruminants, is responsible for considerable economic losses in agriculture. In the current study we have mapped the localisation of these two neurotransmitters in this parasite using immuno-staining. Serotonin localised in amphidial and pharyngeal neurons in both adult female and male worms. Serotonin was also found in ray sensory neurons as well as in a few ventral cord motor neurons exclusively in adult males. Surprisingly, dopamine was only detected in the neuronal commissures linking the lateral and sub-lateral nerve cords in both sexes. We also studied the effect of these two molecules on female adult worms in vitro. Serotonin mainly inhibited movement whereas dopamine had a profound paralytic effect on the mid-body of the worms.     

Character displacement as the "best of a bad situation": fitness trade-offs resulting from selection to minimize resource and mate competition

Abstract Character displacement has long been considered a major cause of adaptive diversification. When species compete for resources or mates, character displacement minimizes competition by promoting divergence in phenotypes associated with resource use (ecological character displacement) or mate attraction (reproductive character displacement). In this study, we investigated whether character displacement can also have pleiotropic effects that lead to fitness trade-offs between the benefits of avoiding competition and costs accrued in other fitness components. We show that both reproductive and ecological character displacement have caused spadefoot toads to evolve smaller body size in the presence of a heterospecific competitor. Although this shift in size likely arose as a by-product of character displacement acting to promote divergence between species in mating behavior and larval development, it concomitantly reduces offspring survival, female fecundity, and sexual selection on males. Thus, character displacement may represent the "best of a bad situation" in that it lessens competition, but at a cost. Individuals in sympatry with the displaced phenotype will have higher fitness than those without the displaced trait because they experience reduced competition, but they may have reduced fitness relative to individuals in allopatry. Such a fitness trade-off can limit the conditions under which character displacement evolves and may even increase the risk of "Darwinian extinction" in sympatric populations. Consequently, character displacement may not always promote diversification in the manner that is often expected.     

Impact of male condition on his spermatophore and consequences for female reproductive performance in the Glanville fritillary butterfly

In butterflies, male reproductive success is highly related to the quality and the size of the spermatophore transferred to the female. The spermatophore is a capsule produced by the male during copulation, which in many species contains sperm in addition to a nuptial gift, and which is digested by the female after copulation. The nuptial gift may contribute to egg production and offspring quality, and in some cases also to female body maintenance. The production of the spermatophore, however, represents a cost for the male and, in polyandrous species, ejaculates are sometimes allocated adaptively across matings. Nonetheless, although the ecological factors affecting the reproductive success of female butterflies have been the topic of numerous studies, little information exists on the factors affecting males’ contribution to reproduction, and the indirect impacts on female fecundity and fitness. We used the Glanville fritillary butterfly, Melitaea cinxia (Linnaeus, 1758) (Nymphalidae), in order to assess variation in male allocation to matings. In this species, smaller males produce smaller spermatophores, but variation in spermatophore size is not correlated with female reproductive success. We show that spermatophore size increases with male age at first mating, decreases with mating frequency and adult food‐deprivation, and is not influenced by developmental food‐limitation. The length of copulation period does not influence the spermatophore size nor influences the polyandrous mating behavior in this species. Male contribution to his spermatophore size is clearly influenced by his condition and adult‐resource at the time of mating. Despite this variation, spermatophore size does not seem to have a direct impact on female reproductive output or mating behavior.     

A Review of Elasmobranch Reproductive Behavior with a Case Study on the Nurse Shark, Ginglymostoma Cirratum

Elasmobranch reproductive behavior has been inferred from freshly caught specimens, laboratory examinations of reproductive structures and function, or determined from direct observations of captive or free swimming wild animals. Several general behaviors have been described including seasonal sexual segregation, courtship and copulation. Courtship behavior was inferred for many species from the presence of scars and tooth cuts on the female's body, and noted in more detail from underwater observations. Copulation has been directly observed in captive settings for several species of elasmobranchs in large aquaria, and in the wild for three species of urolophids and for Triaenodon obesus and Ginglymostoma cirratum. A detailed case history of nurse shark reproductive behavior is presented that may be used as a template for future work on shark reproductive behavior of other species. Our studies, using diver identifiable tags and in situ behavioral observations, provide unprecedented information on social structure and mating behavior in this species. Since 1993, 115 G. cirratum, 45 adults and 70 juveniles have been tagged in the Dry Tortugas, Florida. Observations show that adult males visit the study site every year with three males dominant. Individual adult females visit the study area to mate in alternate years. Polygyny and polyandry are common. Future research on reproductive behavior of elasmobranchs should address questions on male access to females, sexual selection and dominance hierarchies.     

Reproductive behavior and seasonal occurrence of Psecas viridipurpureus (Salticidae, Araneae)

The reproductive behavior and the seasonal occurrence of Psecas viridipurpureus were studied at the Esta??o Ecológica do Noroeste Paulista, a small conservation area in the northwest region of S?o Paulo State, Brazil (49 degrees 22'50"W and 20 degrees 48'36"S). P. viridipurpureus occurred on "gravatá", a bromeliaceous plant (Bromelia balansae, Bromeliaceae) which does not accumulate rain water. During the courtship display the couple occupied the median region of the "gravatá" leaves, with the male always located in a higher position than the female. The males of P. viridipurpureus showed a complex courtship behavior, which included five motor patterns. The courtship and mating behavior occurred preponderantly during the rainy season and the juvenile recruitment between December and July. The retreat of P. viridipurpureus differs from the Salticidae pattern, since the egg sacs are covered with a plain silk cover and are not wrapped in cocoons.     

Morphological inversions during the ontogenesis of the ixodid ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) from the viewpoint of the hypermorphosis conception and their significance for systematics

Morphological inversions during the ontogenesis of the ixodid ticks consist in the deranges of species-specific tendencies in the development of some external structures by the female line. The inversions, which included a wide range of organs and their fine structures, have been described for the first time in 14 species of 4 from 7 Palearctic ixodid genera. Emphasis is placed on the study of the structures, which serve as differential characters for closely related species. It is shown, that the using of the structures subjected to inversions is unavoidable in systematics because of the great similarity of closely related species, especially in immature stages. It is established by the data on the variability of all active stages in the species distribution ranges, that the degree of the inversions manifestation may somewhat fluctuate in different subspecies or geographic morphotypes of the same species, but the peculiarity of the inversions always remains a species-specific character. The cause of inversions origin is the evolution of the Ixodidae by the way of morpho-ecological specialization, namely hypertrophic, giantism, the growth of teguments in the period of nutrition act by pasture ambushing, which led to the derange of the development coordination of the organs during ontogenesis. Biological implication of the inversions is a guarantee of the adaptive potential of species during the process of microevolution. Even though the inversions make identification of closely related species difficult, their substantial importance is that they form integral species-specific character for the whole active part of the species ontogenesis.     

栎旋木柄天牛生殖行为研究

为了阐明栎旋木柄天牛Aphrodisium sauteri Matsushita生殖行为的方式和特点,寻找有效的防治手段,本试验观察了栎旋木柄天牛的生殖行为,并在林间尝试了成虫诱集。结果表明:雌雄成虫之间表现出较强的吸引作用,近距离时雌雄虫可相互吸引,而远距离时雌虫引诱力更强。室内试验中求偶时间会随着成虫的衰弱而增加。成虫交配主要发生于白天。羽化出孔后1～14日龄雌虫和2～13日龄雄虫均可多次交配。成虫一次完整交配平均需时70.12min,交配后保护平均仅用时3.86min。一次完整交配过程中,不同日龄成虫的交配历时、交配间隔历时及交配次数都存在差异,各日龄成虫的交配间隔历时均大于交配历时。交配或产卵经历对雄虫交配行为的影响明显大于雌虫。雌虫产卵前期平均为30.71h。雌虫每产1粒卵平均需时99.58s,并随日龄增长显著加长。每头雌虫平均每日产卵量和总产卵量分别为7.89和26.20粒。雌虫多在白天产卵,用产卵器触探树皮表面寻找合适的产卵部位。卵主要产于树皮裂缝和枝条疤痕内,一般每次产卵1粒,卵表面无覆盖物。     

Dynamics of development of locomotion of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus ponticus baravash, 1940) in early ontogenesis

Locomotion in early ontogenesis in calves of bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus born in oceanarium was studied by visual observation and recording of etograms with subsequent computer treatment of data. The first element of locomotion of the neonates was swimming synchronously with their mother on the water surface and diving to a depth. In the process of development, this form of behavior was modified and other motor acts and postures characteristic of locomotion of adult individuals appeared heterochronously. Formation of various ways of swimming in the calves was connected with the appearance of their capability for the turn to the back. The diving reaction was developed in connection with development of static postures. Among the jumps, the first one was a non-high jumping out from the water--a "flopping-down" abdomen-wise, and subsequently a high arch-like jump with a noiseless entrance into the water and a "flopping-down" side-wise. The main ways of locomotion characteristic of this animal species appeared for the first month of life; subsequently they were improved and complicated.     

Orienting behavior of female white rats in estrus cycle and its dependence on handling

Characteristics of orienting behavior of intact and handled female white rats were studied in the "open field" test. Experimental group of animals were formed according to stages of estrous cycle: (1) diestrus, (2) proestrus, (3) estrus, and (4) metestrus. The stage of the cycle was determined by vaginal smears. Over the period of 10 days rats were handled daily for 5 minutes. No behavioral changes over the course of estrous cycle were found in intact rats. Handling revealed some behavioral features related to the levels of steroid hormones in reproductive cycle. Most prominent changes in orienting behavior were observed at transition from estrous to metestrous. At the stage of estrous motor activity was maximal and grooming was minimal. The maximal contrast in the structure of orienting behavior was observed between estrous and diestrous stages.     

Correlative formation of functions as one of mechanisms of functional evolution (by an example of maturation of stereognosis and speech function in child ontogenesis)

A possibility of correlative formation in ontogenesis of central mechanisms of stereognosis and speech function is considered in the paper by example of comparison of changes in spatial organization of interregional interaction of various cortex areas in children of three ages (5-6, 7-8 and 9-10 years) and in adult examinees during their performances of stereognostical, verbal-mnestical and motor manual activity (tepping-test). With age dynamics of children there is observed a significant increase of the degree of similarity of the spatial structure of EEG interrelations characteristic of periods of performance of stereognostical test with patterns of changes of the EEG distant connections revealed at performance of speech tasks. In turn, the similarity of patterns of interregional EEG relations characteristic of stereognostical tasks with the patterns revealed at the periods of performance of the tepping-test is not increased with age. On the whole, the obtained data allow believing that with increase of children's age there rises the degree of topological similarity of the spatial structure of systemic interactions of the cortex zones, on which there are "supported" processes of realization of stereognostical and speech functions. Progressing increase with children's age of the degree of similarity of distributive organization of neurophysiological mechanisms of central provision of the speech and stereognosis functions can indicate in favor of concept of correlative formation of these higher psychical functions in postnatal ontogenesis. The obtained results show that the correlative interfunctional interactions promoting progressive development of cognitive functions in the child ontogenesis can be realized through long fiber associated and commissural pathways composing the morphofunctional longitudinal-transversal "skeleton" ofneocortex in the close interaction with thalamo-cortical integrative systems.