Th17 Down-regulation Is Involved in Reduced Progression of Schistosomiasis Fibrosis in ICOSL KO Mice

Background

Granulomatous and fibrosing inflammation in response to parasite eggs is the main pathology that occurs during infection with Schistosoma spp. CD4+ T cells play critical roles in both host immune responses against parasitic infection and immunopathology in schistosomiasis,and coordinate many types of immune cells that contribute to fibrosis. ICOSL plays an important role in controlling specific aspects of T cell activation, differentiation, and function. Previous work has suggested that ICOS is essential for Th17 cell development. However, the immunopathogenesis of this pathway in schistosomiasis fibrosisis still unclear.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using models of schistosomiasis in ICOSL KO and the C57BL/6 WT mice, we studied the role of the ICOSL/ICOS interaction in the mediation of the Th17 response in host granulomatous inflammation, particularly in liver fibrosis during S. japonicum infection, and investigated the immune responses and pathology of ICOSL KO mice in these models. The results showed that ICOSL KO mice exhibited improved survival, reduced liver granulomatous inflammation around parasite eggs, markedly inhibited hepatic fibrosis development, lower levels of Th17-related cytokines (IL-17/IL-21), Th2-related cytokines (IL-4/IL-6/IL-10), a pro-fibrotic cytokine (IL-13), and TGF-β1, but higher level of Th1-related cytokine (IFN-γ) compared to wild-type (WT) mice. The reduced progression of fibrogenesis was correlated with the down-regulation of Th17 and Th2 and the elimination of ICOSL/ICOS interactions.

Conclusions/Significance

Our findings suggest that IL-17-producing cells contribute to the hepatic granulomatous inflammation and subsequent fibrosis. Importantly, there was a clearly positive correlation between the presence of IL-17-producing cells and ICOS expression in ICOSL KO mice, and additional results indicated that Th17 was involved in the pathological tissue remodeling in liver fibrosis induced by schistosomiasis.     

Impact of Schistosoma japonicum infection on collagen-induced arthritis in DBA/1 mice: a murine model of human rheumatoid arthritis

Background

The hygiene hypothesis suggests that helminth infections prevent a range of autoimmune diseases.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To investigate the effects of S. japonicum infection on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), male DBA/1 mice were challenged with unisexual or bisexual S. japonicum cercariae two weeks prior to bovine type II collagen (CII) immunization or at the onset of CIA. S. japonicum infection prior to CII immunization significantly reduced the severity of CIA. ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) showed that the levels of anti-CII IgG and IgG2a were reduced in prior schistosome-infected mice, while anti-CII IgG1 was elevated. Splenocyte proliferation against both polyclonal and antigen-specific stimuli was reduced by prior schistosome infection as measured by tritiated thymidine incorporation (³H-TdR). Cytokine profiles and CD4⁺ T cells subpopulation analysis by ELISA and flow cytometry (FCM) demonstrated that prior schistosome infection resulted in a significant down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and Th1 cells, together with up-regulation of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and Th2 cells. Interestingly, the expansion of Treg cells and the reduction of Th17 cells were only observed in bisexually infected mice. In addition, prior schistosome infection notably reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) in the inflamed joint. However, the disease was exacerbated at one week after infection when established CIA mice were challenged with bisexual cercariae.

Conclusion/Significance

Our data provide direct evidence that the Th2 response evoked by prior S. japonicum infection can suppress the Th1 response and pro-inflammatory mediator and that bisexual infection with egg-laying up-regulates the Treg response and down-regulates the Th17 response, resulting in an amelioration of autoimmune arthritis. The beneficial effects might depend on the establishment of a Th2-dominant response rather than the presence of the eggs. Our results suggest that anti-inflammatory molecules from the parasite could treat autoimmune diseases.     

BAFF promotes Th17 cells and aggravates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Background

BAFF, in addition to promoting B cell survival and differentiation, may affect T cells. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of BAFF on Th17 cell generation and its ramifications for the Th17 cell-driven disease, EAE.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Th17 cells were increased in BAFF-Tg B6 (B6.BTg) mice and decreased in B6.Baff^−/− mice. Th17 cells in B6.Baff^−/− mice bearing a BAFF Tg (B6.Baff^−/−.BTg mice) were identical to those in B6.BTg mice, indicating that membrane BAFF is dispensable for Th17 cell generation as long as soluble BAFF is plentiful. In T + non-T cell criss-cross co-cultures, Th17 cell generation was greatest in cultures containing B6.BTg T cells and lowest in cultures containing B6.Baff^−/− T cells, regardless of the source of non-T cells. In cultures containing only T cells, Th17 cell generation followed an identical pattern. CD4⁺ cell expression of CD126 (IL-6R α chain) was increased in B6.BTg mice and decreased in B6.Baff^−/− mice, and activation of STAT3 following stimulation with IL-6 + TGF-β was also greatest in B6.BTg cells and lowest in B6.Baff^−/− cells. EAE was clinically and pathologically most severe in B6.BTg mice and least severe in B6.Baff^−/− mice and correlated with MOG_35–55 peptide-induced Th17 cell responses.

Conclusions/Significance

Collectively, these findings document a contribution of BAFF to pathogenic Th17 cell responses and suggest that BAFF antagonism may be efficacious in Th17 cell-driven diseases.     

Deficient regulatory T cell activity and low frequency of IL-17-producing T cells correlate with the extent of cardiomyopathy in human Chagas' disease

Background

Myocardium damage during Chagas'' disease results from the immunological imbalance between pro- and production of anti-inflammatory cytokines and has been explained based on the Th1–Th2 dichotomy and regulatory T cell activity. Recently, we demonstrated that IL-17 produced during experimental T. cruzi infection regulates Th1 cells differentiation and parasite induced myocarditis. Here, we investigated the role of IL-17 and regulatory T cell during human Chagas'' disease.

Methodology/Principal Findings

First, we observed CD4⁺IL-17⁺ T cells in culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from Chagas'' disease patients and we evaluated Th1, Th2, Th17 cytokine profile production in the PBMC cells from Chagas'' disease patients (cardiomyopathy-free, and with mild, moderate or severe cardiomyopathy) cultured with T. cruzi antigen. Cultures of PBMC from patients with moderate and severe cardiomyopathy produced high levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ and low levels of IL-10, when compared to mild cardiomyopathy or cardiomyopathy-free patients. Flow cytometry analysis showed higher CD4⁺IL-17⁺ cells in PBMC cultured from patients without or with mild cardiomyopathy, in comparison to patients with moderate or severe cardiomyopathy. We then analyzed the presence and function of regulatory T cells in all patients. All groups of Chagas'' disease patients presented the same frequency of CD4⁺CD25⁺ regulatory T cells. However, CD4⁺CD25⁺ T cells from patients with mild cardiomyopathy or cardiomyopathy-free showed higher suppressive activity than those with moderate and severe cardiomyopathy. IFN-γ levels during chronic Chagas'' disease are inversely correlated to the LVEF (P = 0.007, r = −0.614), while regulatory T cell activity is directly correlated with LVEF (P = 0.022, r = 0.500).

Conclusion/Significance

These results indicate that reduced production of the cytokines IL-10 and IL-17 in association with high levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α is correlated with the severity of the Chagas'' disease cardiomyopathy, and the immunological imbalance observed may be causally related with deficient suppressor activity of regulatory T cells that controls myocardial inflammation.     

The Oral Commensal Streptococcus mitis Shows a Mixed Memory Th Cell Signature That Is Similar to and Cross-Reactive with Streptococcus pneumoniae

Background

Carriage of and infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae is known to predominantly induce T helper 17 (Th17) responses in humans, but the types of Th cells showing reactivity towards commensal streptococci with low pathogenic potential, such as the oral commensals S. mitis and S. salivarius, remain uncharacterized.

Methods

Memory CD4⁺ T helper (Th) cell subsets were isolated from healthy human blood donors according to differential expression of chemokine receptors, expanded in vitro using polyclonal stimuli and characterized for reactivity against different streptococcal strains.

Results

Th cells responding to S. mitis, S. salivarius and S. pneumoniae were predominantly in a CCR6⁺CXCR3⁺ subset and produced IFN-γ, and in a CCR6⁺CCR4⁺ subset and produced IL-17 and IL-22. Frequencies of S. pneumoniae-reactive Th cells were higher than frequencies of S. mitis- and S. salivarius-specific Th cells. S. mitis and S. pneumoniae isogenic capsule knock-out mutants and a S. mitis mutant expressing the serotype 4 capsule of S. pneumoniae showed no different Th cell responses as compared to wild type strains. S. mitis-specific Th17 cells showed cross-reactivity with S. pneumoniae.

Conclusions

As Th17 cells partly control clearance of S. pneumoniae, cross-reactive Th17 cells that may be induced by commensal bacterial species may influence the immune response, independent of capsule expression.     

The presence of IL-17A and T helper 17 cells in experimental mouse brain tumors and human glioma

Background

Recently, CD4⁺IL-17A⁺ T helper 17 (Th17) cells were identified and reported in several diseased states, including autoimmunity, infection and various peripheral nervous system tumors. However, the presence of Th17 in glia-derived tumors of the central nervous system has not been studied.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this report, we demonstrate that mRNA expression for the Th17 cell cytokine IL-17A, as well as Th17 cells, are present in human glioma. The mRNA expression for IL-17A in glioma was recapitulated in an immunocompetent mouse model of malignant glioma. Furthermore, the presence of Th17 cells was confirmed in both human and mouse glioma. Interestingly, some Th17 cells present in mouse glioma co-expressed the Th1 and Th2 lineage markers, IFN-γ and IL-4, respectively, but predominantly co-expressed the Treg lineage marker FoxP3.

Conclusions

These data confirm the presence of Th17 cells in glia-derived CNS tumors and provide the rationale for further investigation into the role of Th17 cells in malignant glioma.     

T- and B-Cell-Mediated Protection Induced by Novel,Live Attenuated Pertussis Vaccine in Mice. Cross Protection against Parapertussis

Background

Despite the extensive use of efficacious vaccines, pertussis still ranks among the major causes of childhood mortality worldwide. Two types of pertussis vaccines are currently available, whole-cell, and the more recent acellular vaccines. Because of reduced reactogenicity and comparable efficacy acellular vaccines progressively replace whole-cell vaccines. However, both types require repeated administrations for optimal efficacy. We have recently developed a live attenuated vaccine candidate, named BPZE1, able to protect infant mice after a single nasal administration.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We determined the protective mechanism of BPZE1-mediated immunity by using passive transfer of T cells and antibodies from BPZE1-immunized mice to SCID mice. Clearance of Bordetella pertussis from the lungs was mediated by both BPZE1-induced antibodies and CD4⁺, but not by CD8⁺ T cells. The protective CD4⁺ T cells comprised IFN-γ-producing and IL-17-producing subsets, indicating that BPZE1 induces both Th1 and Th17 CD4⁺ T cells. In addition, and in contrast to acellular pertussis vaccines, BPZE1 also cross-protected against Bordetella parapertussis infection, but in this case only the transfer of CD4⁺ T cells conferred protection. Serum from BPZE1-immunized mice was not able to kill B. parapertussis and did not protect SCID mice against B. parapertussis infection.

Conclusions/Significance

The novel live attenuated pertussis vaccine BPZE1 protects in a pre-clinical mouse model against B. pertussis challenge by both BPZE1-induced antibodies and CD4⁺ T cell responses. It also protects against B. parapertussis infection. However, in this case protection is only T cell mediated.     

IL-17 Produced during Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Plays a Central Role in Regulating Parasite-Induced Myocarditis

Background

Chagas disease is a neglected disease caused by the intracellular parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Around 30% of the infected patients develop chronic cardiomyopathy or megasyndromes, which are high-cost morbid conditions. Immune response against myocardial self-antigens and exacerbated Th1 cytokine production has been associated with the pathogenesis of the disease. As IL-17 is involved in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune, inflammatory and infectious diseases, we investigated its role during the infection with T. cruzi.

Methodology/Principal Findings

First, we detected significant amounts of CD4, CD8 and NK cells producing IL-17 after incubating live parasites with spleen cells from normal BALB/c mice. IL-17 is also produced in vivo by CD4⁺, CD8⁺ and NK cells from BALB/c mice on the early acute phase of infection. Treatment of infected mice with anti-mouse IL-17 mAb resulted in increased myocarditis, premature mortality, and decreased parasite load in the heart. IL-17 neutralization resulted in increased production of IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α and enhanced specific type 1 chemokine and chemokine receptors expression. Moreover, the results showed that IL-17 regulates T-bet, RORγt and STAT-3 expression in the heart, showing that IL-17 controls the differentiation of Th1 cells in infected mice.

Conclusion/Significance

These results show that IL-17 controls the resistance to T. cruzi infection in mice regulating the Th1 cells differentiation, cytokine and chemokine production and control parasite-induced myocarditis, regulating the influx of inflammatory cells to the heart tissue. Correlations between the levels of IL-17, the extent of myocardial destruction, and the evolution of cardiac disease could identify a clinical marker of disease progression and may help in the design of alternative therapies for the control of chronic morbidity of chagasic patients.     

Prophylactic Efficacy of TcVac2 against Trypanosoma cruzi in Mice

Background

Chagas disease is a major health problem in Latin America, and an emerging infectious disease in the US. Previously, we have screened the Trypanosoma cruzi sequence database by a computational/bioinformatics approach, and identified antigens that exhibited the characteristics of vaccine candidates.

Methodology

We investigated the protective efficacy of a multi-component DNA-prime/protein-boost vaccine (TcVac2) constituted of the selected candidates and cytokine (IL-12 and GM-CSF) expression plasmids in a murine model. C57BL/6 mice were immunized with antigen-encoding plasmids plus cytokine adjuvants, followed by recombinant proteins; and two-weeks later, challenged with T. cruzi trypomastigotes. ELISA and flow cytometry were employed to measure humoral (antibody isotypes) and cellular (lymphocyte proliferation, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell phenotype and cytokines) responses. Myocardial pathology was evaluated by H&E and Masson''s trichrome staining.

Principal Findings

TcVac2 induced a strong antigen-specific antibody response (IgG2b>IgG1) and a moderate level of lymphocyte proliferation in mice. Upon challenge infection, TcVac2-vaccinated mice expanded the IgG2b/IgG1 antibodies and elicited a substantial CD8⁺ T cell response associated with type 1 cytokines (IFN-γ and TNF-α) that resulted in control of acute parasite burden. During chronic phase, antibody response persisted, splenic activation of CD8⁺ T cells and IFN-γ/TNF-α cytokines subsided, and IL-4/IL-10 cytokines became dominant in vaccinated mice. The tissue parasitism, inflammation, and fibrosis in heart and skeletal muscle of TcVac2-vaccinated chronic mice were undetectable by histological techniques. In comparison, mice injected with vector or cytokines only responded to T. cruzi by elicitation of a mixed (type 1/type 2) antibody, T cell and cytokine response, and exhibited persistent parasite burden and immunopathology in the myocardium.

Conclusion

TcVac2-induced activation of type 1 antibody and lymphocyte responses provided resistance to acute T. cruzi infection, and consequently, prevented the evolution of chronic immunopathology associated with parasite persistence in chagasic hearts.     

CD4+CD25hiFOXP3+ Regulatory T Cells and Cytokine Responses in Human Schistosomiasis before and after Treatment with Praziquantel

Background

Chronic schistosomiasis is associated with T cell hypo-responsiveness and immunoregulatory mechanisms, including induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs). However, little is known about Treg functional capacity during human Schistosoma haematobium infection.

Methodology

CD4⁺CD25^hiFOXP3⁺ cells were characterized by flow cytometry and their function assessed by analysing total and Treg-depleted PBMC responses to schistosomal adult worm antigen (AWA), soluable egg antigen (SEA) and Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) in S. haematobium-infected Gabonese children before and 6 weeks after anthelmintic treatment. Cytokines responses (IFN-γ, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, IL-17 and TNF) were integrated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Proliferation was measured by CFSE.

Principal Findings

S. haematobium infection was associated with increased Treg frequencies, which decreased post-treatment. Cytokine responses clustered into two principal components reflecting regulatory and Th2-polarized (PC1) and pro-inflammatory and Th1-polarized (PC2) cytokine responses; both components increased post-treatment. Treg depletion resulted in increased PC1 and PC2 at both time-points. Proliferation on the other hand, showed no significant difference from pre- to post-treatment. Treg depletion resulted mostly in increased proliferative responses at the pre-treatment time-point only.

Conclusions

Schistosoma-associated CD4⁺CD25^hiFOXP3⁺Tregs exert a suppressive effect on both proliferation and cytokine production. Although Treg frequency decreases after praziquantel treatment, their suppressive capacity remains unaltered when considering cytokine production whereas their influence on proliferation weakens with treatment.     

Tracing functional antigen-specific CCR6 Th17 cells after vaccination

Background

The function of T helper cell subsets in vivo depends on their location, and one hallmark of T cell differentiation is the sequential regulation of migration-inducing chemokine receptor expression. CC-chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6) is a trait of tissue-homing effector T cells and has recently been described as a receptor on T helper type 17 (Th17) cells. Th17 cells are associated with autoimmunity and the defence against certain infections. Although, the polarization of Th cells into Th17 cells has been studied extensively in vitro, the development of those cells during the physiological immune response is still elusive.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We analysed the development and functionality of Th17 cells in immune-competent mice during an ongoing immune response. In naïve and vaccinated animals CCR6⁺ Th cells produce IL-17. The robust homeostatic proliferation and the presence of activation markers on CCR6⁺ Th cells indicate their activated status. Vaccination induces antigen-specific CCR6⁺ Th17 cells that respond to in vitro re-stimulation with cytokine production and proliferation. Furthermore, depletion of CCR6⁺ Th cells from donor leukocytes prevents recipients from severe disease in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a model for multiple sclerosis in mice.

Conclusions/Significance

In conclusion, we defined CCR6 as a specific marker for functional antigen-specific Th17 cells during the immune response. Since IL-17 production reaches the highest levels during the immediate early phase of the immune response and the activation of Th17 cells precedes the Th1 cell differentiation we tent to speculate that this particular Th cell subset may represent a first line effector Th cell subpopulation. Interference with the activation of this Th cell subtype provides an interesting strategy to prevent autoimmunity as well as to establish protective immunity against infections.     

Heat Shock Protein 60 in Eggs Specifically Induces Tregs and Reduces Liver Immunopathology in Mice with Schistosomiasis Japonica

Background

Parasitic helminths need to suppress the host immune system to establish chronic infections. Paradoxically, immunosuppression induced by the worm also benefits the host by limiting excessive inflammation and tissue damage, which remains the major cause leading to serious morbidity and mortality. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are key immune regulators of this mutualism. The successive rise in Tregs during schistosome infection plays a critical role in immunoregulation. We and others previously showed that Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) egg antigens (SEA) induce Tregs both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we identified that SjHSP60 derived from SEA significantly induces Tregs in vivo and in vitro. However, the contribution of SjHSP60 in SEA to Treg induction and the related mechanisms of the Treg induction have not yet been identified.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, we showed that S. japonicum stress protein HSP60 (SjHSP60) was constitutively and extensively expressed in eggs of S. japonicum. SjHSP60 specially induced Tregs in vivo and in vitro without inducing other CD4⁺ T sub-populations including Th1, Th2 and Th17 cells. Furthermore, we showed that the SjHSP60-depleted SEA almost lost the ability in vitro and displayed a significant impaired ability to induce Tregs in vivo. Finally, our study illustrated that the mechanisms of SjHSP60-mediated induction of Tregs are through both conversion of CD4⁺CD25^- T cells into CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Tregs and expansion of preexisting CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Tregs in a TLR4-dependent manner.

Conclusions/Significance

Collectively, our findings identify SjHSP60 as a major parasitic contributor of Treg induction in S. japonicum egg antigens, which not only contributes to the better understanding of the mechanism of immunoregulation during helminth infection, but also suggests its potential as a therapeutic target for control of immunopathology, allergic and autoimmune diseases.     

Linking Power Doppler Ultrasound to the Presence of Th17 Cells in the Rheumatoid Arthritis Joint

Background

Power Doppler ultrasound (PDUS) is increasingly used to assess synovitis in Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA). Prior studies have shown correlations between PDUS scores and vessel counts, but relationships with T cell immunopathology have not been described.

Methodology/Principal Findings

PBMC were isolated from healthy controls (HC) or RA patients and stimulated ex vivo with PMA and ionomycin for 3 hours in the presence of Golgistop. Paired synovial fluid (SF) or synovial tissue (ST) were analysed where available. Intracellular expression of IL-17, IFNγ, and TNFα by CD4+ T cells was determined by flow cytometry. Synovial blood flow was evaluated by PDUS signal at the knees, wrists and metacarpophalangeal joints of RA patients. Serum, SF and fibroblast culture supernatant levels of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) were measured by ELISA. The frequency of IL17+IFNγ-CD4+ T cells (Th17 cells) was significantly elevated in peripheral blood (PB) from RA patients vs. HC (median (IQR) 0.5 (0.28–1.59)% vs. 0.32 (0.21–0.54)%, p = 0.005). Th17 cells were further enriched (mean 6.6-fold increase) in RA SF relative to RA PB. Patients with active disease had a higher percentage of IL-17+ T cells in ST than patients in remission, suggesting a possible role for Th17 cells in active synovitis in RA. Indeed, the percentage of Th17 cells, but not Th1, in SF positively correlated with CRP (r = 0.51, p = 0.04) and local PDUS-defined synovitis (r = 0.61, p = 0.002). Furthermore, patients with high levels of IL-17+CD4+ T cells in SF had increased levels of the angiogenic factor VEGF-A in SF. Finally, IL-17, but not IFNγ, increased VEGF-A production by RA synovial fibroblasts in vitro.

Conclusions/Significance

Our data demonstrate a link between the presence of pro-inflammatory Th17 cells in SF and local PDUS scores, and offer a novel immunological explanation for the observation that rapid joint damage progression occurs in patients with persistent positive PDUS signal.     

Helminth Infections Coincident with Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis Inhibit Mono- and Multifunctional CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell Responses in a Process Dependent on IL-10

Tissue invasive helminth infections and tuberculosis (TB) are co-endemic in many parts of the world and can trigger immune responses that might antagonize each other. We have previously shown that helminth infections modulate the Th1 and Th17 responses to mycobacterial-antigens in latent TB. To determine whether helminth infections modulate antigen-specific and non-specific immune responses in active pulmonary TB, we examined CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses as well as the systemic (plasma) cytokine levels in individuals with pulmonary TB with or without two distinct helminth infections—Wuchereria bancrofti and Strongyloides stercoralis infection. By analyzing the frequencies of Th1 and Th17 CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells and their component subsets (including multifunctional cells), we report a significant diminution in the mycobacterial–specific frequencies of mono- and multi–functional CD4⁺ Th1 and (to a lesser extent) Th17 cells when concomitant filarial or Strongyloides infection occurs. The impairment in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell cytokine responses was antigen-specific as polyclonal activated T cell frequencies were equivalent irrespective of helminth infection status. This diminution in T cell responses was also reflected in diminished circulating levels of Th1 (IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-2)- and Th17 (IL-17A and IL-17F)-associated cytokines. Finally, we demonstrate that for the filarial co-infections at least, this diminished frequency of multifunctional CD4⁺ T cell responses was partially dependent on IL-10 as IL-10 blockade significantly increased the frequencies of CD4⁺ Th1 cells. Thus, co-existent helminth infection is associated with an IL-10 mediated (for filarial infection) profound inhibition of antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell responses as well as protective systemic cytokine responses in active pulmonary TB.     

Increased number of Tc17 and correlation with Th17 cells in patients with immune thrombocytopenia

Background

IL-17-secreting CD8+ T cells (Tc17 subset) have recently been defined as a subpopulation of effector T cells implicated in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. The role of Tc17 and correlation with Th17 cells in the pathophysiology of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) remain unsettled.

Design and Methods

We studied 47 ITP patients (20 newly-diagnosed and 27 with complete response) and 34 healthy controls. IL-17-producing CD3+CD8+ cells (Tc17) and IL-17-producing CD3+CD8− cells (Th17) were evaluated by flow cytometry and expressed as a percentage of the total number of CD3+ cells. Specific anti-platelet glycoprotein (GP) GPIIb/IIIa and/or GPIb/IX autoantibodies were measured by modified monoclonal antibody specific immobilization of platelet antigens. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells of ITP patients were isolated, incubated in the presence of 0, 0.25, 0.5, or 1 µmol/L of dexamethasone for 72 h, and collected to detect Tc17 and Th17 cells by flow cytometric analysis.

Results

IL-17 was expressed on CD3+CD8− and CD3+CD8+ T cells. The percentages of Tc17 and Th17 cells in newly-diagnosed patients were significantly elevated compared to controls, and Tc17 was decreased after clinical treatment. The Th17∶Tc17 ratio was significantly lower in newly-diagnosed patients compared with controls, and was increased in patients who had complete response. There was a significantly positive correlation between Tc17 and Th17 cells in the control group, but not in the ITP patients. A positive correlation existed between Tc17 and the CD8∶CD4 ratio, as well as CD8+ cells in patients with ITP. The frequencies of Tc17 were marginally higher in autoantibody-negative patients than autoantibody-positive patients. Moreover, both Tc17 and Th17 cell percentages decreased as the concentration of dexamethasone in the culture media increased in ITP patients.

Conclusions

Tc17 and the Th17 subset are involved in the immunopathology of ITP. Blocking the abnormally increased number of Tc17 may be a reasonable therapeutic strategy for ITP.     

Inhibition of effector function but not T cell activation and increase in FoxP3 expression in T cells differentiated in the presence of PP14

Background

T-helper polarization of naïve T cells is determined by a complex mechanism that involves many factors, eventually leading to activation of Th1, Th2, or Th17 responses or alternatively the generation of regulatory T cells. Placental Protein 14 (PP14) is a 28 kDa glycoprotein highly secreted in early pregnancy that is able to desensitize T cell receptor (TCR) signaling and modulate T cell activation.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Prolonged antigen-specific stimulation of T cells in the presence of PP14 resulted in an impaired secretion of IFN-γ, IL-5 and IL-17 upon restimulation, although the cells proliferated and expressed activation markers. Furthermore, the generation of regulatory CD4⁺CD25^highFoxp3⁺ T cells was induced in the presence of PP14, in both antigen-specific as well as polyclonal stimulation. In accordance with previous reports, we found that the induction of FoxP3 expression by PP14 is accompanied by down regulation of the PI3K-mTOR signaling pathway.

Conclusions/Significance

These data suggest that PP14 arrests T cells in a unique activated state that is not accompanied with the acquisition of effector function, together with promoting the generation of regulatory T cells. Taken together, our results may elucidate the role of PP14 in supporting immune tolerance in pregnancy by reducing T cell effector functions along with augmenting Treg differentiation.     

Overrepresentation of IL-17A and IL-22 producing CD8 T cells in lesional skin suggests their involvement in the pathogenesis of psoriasis

Background

Although recent studies indicate a crucial role for IL-17A and IL-22 producing T cells in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, limited information is available on their frequency and heterogeneity and their distribution in skin in situ.

Methodology/Principal Findings

By spectral imaging analysis of double-stained skin sections we demonstrated that IL-17 was mainly expressed by mast cells and neutrophils and IL-22 by macrophages and dendritic cells. Only an occasional IL-17^pos, but no IL-22^pos T cell could be detected in psoriatic skin, whereas neither of these cytokines was expressed by T cells in normal skin. However, examination of in vitro-activated T cells by flow cytometry revealed that substantial percentages of skin-derived CD4 and CD8 T cells were able to produce IL-17A alone or together with IL-22 (i.e. Th17 and Tc17, respectively) or to produce IL-22 in absence of IL-17A and IFN-γ (i.e. Th22 and Tc22, respectively). Remarkably, a significant proportional rise in Tc17 and Tc22 cells, but not in Th17 and Th22 cells, was found in T cells isolated from psoriatic versus normal skin. Interestingly, we found IL-22 single-producers in many skin-derived IL-17A^pos CD4 and CD8 T cell clones, suggesting that in vivo IL-22 single-producers may arise from IL-17A^pos T cells as well.

Conclusions/Significance

The increased presence of Tc17 and Tc22 cells in lesional psoriatic skin suggests that these types of CD8 T cells play a significant role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. As part of the skin-derived IL-17A^pos CD4 and CD8 T clones developed into IL-22 single-producers, this demonstrates plasticity in their cytokine production profile and suggests a developmental relationship between Th17 and Th22 cells and between Tc17 and Tc22 cells.     

Expansion of Pathogen-Specific Mono- and Multifunctional Th1 and Th17 Cells in Multi-Focal Tuberculous Lymphadenitis

Background

Th1 and Th17 responses are known to play an important role in immunity to pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), although little is known about their role in extrapulmonary forms of tuberculosis (TB).

Methods

To identify the role of Th1, Th17, and Th22 cells in multi-focal TB lymphadenitis (TBL), we examined mycobacteria–specific immune responses in the whole blood of individuals with PTB (n = 20) and compared them with those with TBL (n = 25).

Results

Elevated frequencies of CD4⁺ T cells expressing IFN- γ, TNF-α, and IL-2 were present in individuals with TBL compared with those with PTB at baseline and in response to ESAT-6 and CFP-10. Similarly, increased frequencies of CD4⁺ T cells expressing IL-17A, IL-17F, and IFN-γ were also present in individuals with TBL at baseline and following ESAT-6 and CFP-10 stimulation although no significant difference in frequency of Th22 cells was observed. Finally, frequencies of Th1 (but not Th17) cells exhibited a significantly negative correlation with natural regulatory T cell frequencies at baseline.

Conclusions

Multi-focal TB lymphadenitis is therefore characterized by elevated frequencies of Th1 and Th17 cells, indicating that Th1 and Th17 responses in TB disease are probably correlates of disease severity rather than of protective immunity.     

Th17 cells are involved in the local control of tumor progression in primary intraocular lymphoma

Background

Th17 cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of many autoimmune diseases, but despite some reports of their antitumor properties, too little is known about their presence and role in cancers. Specifically, knowledge is sparse about the relation of Th17 to lymphoma microenvironments and, more particularly, to the microenvironment of primary intraocular B-cell lymphoma (PIOL), an aggressive lymphoma with a poor prognosis.

Methods and Principal Findings

In this work, we investigated the presence of Th17 cells and their related cytokines in a syngeneic model of PIOL, a subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The very small number of lymphocytes trafficking in normal eyes, which represent a low background as compared to tumor-bearing eyes, allows us to develop the present model to characterize the different lymphocyte subsets present when a tumor is developing. IL-21 mRNA was expressed concomitantly with IL-17 mRNA in tumor-bearing eyes and intracellular expression of IL-17A and IL-21 in infiltrating CD4⁺ T lymphocytes. Interestingly, IL-17A production by T cells was negatively correlated with tumor burden. We also showed that IL-21 but not IL-17 inhibits tumor cell proliferation in vitro.

Conclusions

These data demonstrate that IL-17A and IL-21-producing CD4⁺ T cells, referred as Th17 cells, infiltrate this tumor locally and suggest that Th17-related cytokines may counteract tumor progression via IL-21 production. Thus, Th17 cells or their related cytokines could be considered to be a new therapeutic approach for non-Hodgkin B-cell lymphomas, particularly those with an ocular localization.     

HLA Class I-T cell epitopes from trans-sialidase proteins reveal functionally distinct subsets of CD8+ T cells in chronic Chagas disease

Background

Previously, we identified a set of HLA-A020.1-restricted trans-sialidase peptides as targets of CD8⁺ T cell responses in HLA-A0201⁺ individuals chronically infected by T. cruzi.

Methods and Findings

Herein, we report the identification of peptides encoded by the same trans-sialidase gene family that bind alleles representative of the 6 most common class I HLA-supertypes. Based on a combination of bioinformatic predictions and HLA-supertype considerations, a total of 1001 epitopes predicted to bind to HLA A01, A02, A03, A24, B7 and B44 supertypes was selected. Ninety-six supertype-binder epitopes encoded by multiple trans-sialidase genes were tested for the ability to stimulate a recall CD8⁺ T cell response in the peripheral blood from subjects with chronic T. cruzi infection regardless the HLA haplotype. An overall hierarchy of antigenicity was apparent, with the A02 supertype peptides being the most frequently recognized in the Chagas disease population followed by the A03 and the A24 supertype epitopes. CD8⁺ T cell responses to promiscuous epitopes revealed that the CD8⁺ T cell compartment specific for T. cruzi displays a functional profile with T cells secreting interferon-γ alone as the predominant pattern and very low prevalence of single IL-2-secreting or dual IFN-γ/IL-2 secreting T cells denoting a lack of polyfunctional cytokine responses in chronic T. cruzi infection.

Conclusions

This study identifies a set of T. cruzi peptides that should prove useful for monitoring immune competence and changes in infection and disease status in individuals with chronic Chagas disease.