Male-female affiliative relationships in naturally occurring ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at the Beza-Mahafaly Reserve,Madagascar

Affiliative behavior between adult male and female ringtailed lemurs was examined as part of a project concerning male affiliation with conspecifics of all age/sex classes. Males in three social groups were studied over a 12 month period. Male-female preferred partnerships existed, and were variable according to reproductive season. Dominance rank, age, or tenure of the male did not appear to affect either the number of partnerships or frequency of affiliative behaviors that males had with females. However, males residing in groups with fewer males exhibited both higher frequencies of affiliative interactions with females and were nearest neighbors to females more often than males living in a group containing more males. Females were found to be responsible for proximity maintenance of male-female dyads in the majority of cases. Neither reproductive season nor seasonal availability of food resources strongly affected the frequency of affiliative interactions between males and females, it is proposed that an important aspect of successful group membership for male ringtailed lemurs relates to the development of social relationships with adult females. Males can benefit from such relationships in terms of greater centrality to the spatial core of the group, which can result in enhanced predator protection, greater opportunities for social contact, and potentially greater access to estrous females. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Hunting and Nesting Phenology Influence Gobbling of Wild Turkeys

Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) use a polygynous mating system whereby males engage in multiple courtship behaviors, including vocalizations (gobbling) to attract females and compete with other males for breeding opportunities. Males must balance the risk of courtship behaviors with the reproductive potential of each courtship behavior. Male turkeys are primarily hunted during the reproductive period, so the associated risk of courtship behaviors is increased. Many state agencies attempt to set hunting season frameworks that maximize hunter satisfaction by allowing hunting when gobbling activity is greatest and most females are theoretically incubating nests, but the relationship between gobbling activity and nesting phenology is unclear. We used autonomous recording units and global positioning system transmitters to monitor gobbling activity by male turkeys and reproductive behaviors of female turkeys in the Piedmont region of Georgia, USA. We used 13,177 gobbles, behavioral data from 82 females during the reproductive season, and daily estimates of harvest of males by hunters to examine relationships between daily gobbling activity, cumulative removal of males, and reproductive behaviors (laying, incubating) of females during 2017–2018. We observed a weak negative relationship between daily gobbling activity and gobbling activity the following day. As the reproductive season progressed, gobbling activity decreased. As the proportion of females engaged in laying or incubating behaviors increased, expected daily gobbling activity increased. Conversely, we observed that hunting and removal of males had a negative effect on daily gobbling activity, and this effect was disproportionately greater than the positive effect of female reproductive behaviors. Our findings suggest that hunting and removal of males are important determinants of gobbling activity, and that corresponding reductions in gobbling activity may have mediating effects on the mating system of wild turkeys. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Importance of the signals provided by the buck for the success of the male effect in goats

Under temperate and subtropical latitudes, ewes and goats display a reproductive seasonal pattern and their sexual activity during the anestrous period can be stimulated and synchronized by the introduction of males in the group, which is called the "male effect". The response of females to the male effect in the middle of the anestrous season is weak or absent. This failure may be due to the inability of the female to respond to males, as a result of a refractoriness of the female to the male stimulus. But, it may also be due to a low quality stimulus provided by the male which is, as the females, in seasonal rest. We tested this latter hypothesis in seasonally inactive goats kept under subtropical conditions by comparing the use of males with their sexual behavior stimulated or not by photoperiodic treatments. Treated males were able to induce estrous activity of females during the whole anestrus season. We have also determined that previous separation of the males and continuous contact during teasing are not absolute requisites when active bucks are used. While odor from the male and its sexual behavior play a primary role in inducing ovulation, vocalizations appear to facilitate the display of the does' estrous. It remains to be determined to which extent these conclusions apply under temperate latitudes and with more seasonal breeds.     

Effects of reproductive and social context on vocal communication in captive female African elephants (Loxodonta africana)

Female African elephants advertise changes in reproductive condition to males through a variety of modalities, including an increase in low‐frequency vocalizations, presumed to travel long distances. Although males respond to these vocalizations, it has been suggested that their proximate function may be to signal to nearby females rather than to distant males. Because elephants live in a female‐bonded society, it is likely that changes in female reproductive condition also affect close‐range interactions between high‐ and low‐ranking females and that vocalizations may mediate these interactions. To examine female–female interactions related to vocal production and the ovulatory cycle, this year‐long study monitored behavior, vocalizations and hormonal cycles for a group of six female captive African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom. Rates of several types of close‐range interactions were observed to change over the phases of the estrous cycle, and rank seemed to affect whether or not low‐frequency vocalizations were given in association with these interactions. Results of this study suggest that a female African elephant's immediate social context and rank in the social hierarchy interact with the hormonal cycle in the production of low‐frequency vocalizations, thus many of these vocalizations may not function proximately as signals to distant males, but may be a result of the changing dynamics among females. Zoo Biol 0:1–17, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Female brown-headed cowbirds', Molothrus ater, organization and behaviour reflects male social dynamics

In four large aviaries, we studied social assortment and reproductive behaviour of female brown-headed cowbirds housed with males differing in age class and in corresponding levels of intrasexual interaction. Juvenile and adult females resided with either (1) adult males, (2) juvenile males, (3) adult and juvenile males, or (4) no males. We observed social behaviour of males and females from September 1999 through to the 2000 breeding season. Throughout the year, males in the different conditions showed different levels of social interaction, with adult males being most engaged in male-male interactions and juvenile males being least engaged in male-male interactions. Females in the four conditions differed in their associations with males and with other females. In conditions with adult males, females spent more time near males, approached males more often, and associated with females less. During the breeding season, females in conditions with more adult males copulated more and produced more fertile and viable eggs. In the condition where females were housed with juvenile males, they copulated less, laid fewer eggs and destroyed more of their eggs. Results indicate that throughout the year, females are sensitive to male age and behaviour in their social group, and that this sensitivity can have reproductive consequences. Copyright 2002 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.     

Female sexual arousal in amphibians

Rather than being a static, species specific trait, reproductive behavior in female amphibians is variable within an individual during the breeding season when females are capable of reproductive activity. Changes in receptivity coincide with changes in circulating estrogen. Estrogen is highest at the point when females are ready to choose a male and lay eggs. At this time female receptivity (her probability of responding to a male vocal signal) is highest and her selectivity among conspecific calls (measured by her probability of responding to a degraded or otherwise usually unattractive male signal) is lowest. These changes occur even though females retain the ability to discriminate different acoustic characteristics of various conspecific calls. After releasing her eggs, female amphibians quickly become less receptive and more choosy in terms of their responses to male sexual advertisement signals. Male vocal signals stimulate both behavior and estrogen changes in amphibian females making mating more probable. The changes in female reproductive behavior are the same as those generally accepted as indicative of a change in female sexual arousal leading to copulation. They are situationally triggered, gated by interactions with males, and decline with the consummation of sexual reproduction with a chosen male. The changes can be triggered by either internal physiological state or by the presence of stimuli presented by males, and the same stimuli change both behavior and physiological (endocrine) state in such a way as to make acceptance of a male more likely. Thus amphibian females demonstrate many of the same general characteristics of changing female sexual state that in mammals indicate sexual arousal.     

A preliminary study of olfactory behavior of captiveLemur coronatus during the breeding season

The olfactory behavior of a captive population of crowned lemurs (Lemur coronatus)was studied during their annual breeding season in order to investigate its possible role in the fine-tuning of mating synchrony after photoperiodic initiation of reproductive activity. The frequencies of five stereotyped olfactory behavior patterns were recorded in four male-female groups during 315 1-hr observation sessions between October and March. The mean total scent-marking frequency of all males was positively correlated with their mean testicular size. Male anogenital-, head-, and allomarking frequencies decreased during the breeding season, whereas hand-marking frequencies remained constant. Male head-marking increased significantly in the 5 days preceding female vaginal estrus. Furthermore, males responded to many female scents by olfactory investigation and/or overmarking, whereas females never showed an observable behavioral response to male scent marks. The marking frequencies of two females did not change significantly during the breeding season, while those of two others decreased significantly. These results suggest qualitative changes of female scents during estrus and a less important role of male scents in intersexual communication in the context of reproduction than previously thought.     

Correlations between body size, defensive behaviour and reproductive success in male Little Blue Penguins Eudyptula minor: implications for female choice

Field studies exploring relationships among body size, defensive behaviour (including vocalizations) and reproductive success in male Little Blue Penguins Eudyptula minor were conducted to identify behavioural and physical attributes that might provide females or opponents with information on male quality. Head length provided a simple estimator of body size in both sexes. Nests defended by large males produced eggs and chicks earlier in the breeding season, and contained chicks that grew more quickly than chicks in nests defended by small males. In contrast, female body size did not affect any of the reproductive parameters we measured. The pitch of male defensive calls varied significantly with male size, so females (or opponents) could potentially gauge male size by assessing the calls. Large males were also more likely to respond vocally to simulated nest intrusions. As a result, by 'keeping company' with prospective partners early in the breeding season, females can obtain information about males that would allow them to select better partners and improve their own reproductive potential.     

Sexual behavior of the female porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis

Porcupines are sexually active throughout the estrous cycle, and sexual behavior is not affected by the reproductive status and hormonal milieu of females. Increased female-male interactions during estrus are the only indications of behavioral changes during estrus. The lack of aggression shown by females to known males as opposed to aggression shown to strange males, the greater interest shown by males toward certain females, and the superior breeding success of these females suggest a pair-bonding mating system. Limited changes in female receptivity throughout the cycle might be of importance in maintaining the pair-bond.     

Mahale chimpanzees: grouping patterns and cycling females

The social system of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) is characterized by the fission-fusion of social groups. Several studies have reported that females are less gregarious than males. In the current study, adult female gregariousness depended on their reproductive state. Noncycling adult females (pregnant, lactating, or post reproductive) were observed in large bisexual parties less often than cycling adult females. On the other hand, cycling adult females were observed in large bisexual parties as often as males, regardless of their estrous state. More males were in parties that included cycling adult females with maximal genital swelling (estrous females) than in parties without them. Moreover, a bisexual party including more estrous females contained more males. These results suggest that large bisexual parties of chimpanzees are constructed by a dual mechanism. First, cycling adult females are attracted to parties that consist of the top ranking male and large numbers of adult and adolescent males. Second, adult and adolescent males that did not belong to parties originally are attracted by estrous females and join them. Thus, in Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, bisexual parties of chimpanzees can be characterized as "parties for reproduction."     

Female presence and estrous state influence mouse ultrasonic courtship vocalizations

The laboratory mouse is an emerging model for context-dependent vocal signaling and reception. Mouse ultrasonic vocalizations are robustly produced in social contexts. In adults, male vocalization during courtship has become a model of interest for signal-receiver interactions. These vocalizations can be grouped into syllable types that are consistently produced by different subspecies and strains of mice. Vocalizations are unique to individuals, vary across development, and depend on social housing conditions. The behavioral significance of different syllable types, including the contexts in which different vocalizations are made and the responses listeners have to different types of vocalizations, is not well understood. We examined the effect of female presence and estrous state on male vocalizations by exploring the use of syllable types and the parameters of syllables during courtship. We also explored correlations between vocalizations and other behaviors. These experimental manipulations produced four main findings: 1) vocalizations varied among males, 2) the production of USVs and an increase in the use of a specific syllable type were temporally related to mounting behavior, 3) the frequency (kHz), bandwidth, and duration of syllables produced by males were influenced by the estrous phase of female partners, and 4) syllable types changed when females were removed. These findings show that mouse ultrasonic courtship vocalizations are sensitive to changes in female phase and presence, further demonstrating the context-sensitivity of these calls.     

The use of low-frequency vocalizations in African elephant(Loxodonta africana) reproductive strategies

Fertility-advertisement calls in females are predicted to occur in nonmonogamous species where males and females are widely separated in space. In African elephants, low-frequency vocalizations have thus been suggested as a reproductive strategy used by fertile females to attract mates. This study examined the use of low-frequency vocalizations with respect to different phases of the estrous cycle in African elephants by simultaneously monitoring vocalizations, behavior, and hormonal profiles. Subjects were one male and six female African elephants housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom. No acoustically distinct vocalizations were restricted to the ovulatory follicular phase. However, overall rate of low-frequency vocalization as well as the rate of one acoustically distinct vocalization changed over the estrous cycle, with highest rates of calling related to the first period of follicular growth, or anovulatory follicular phase. Elevated rates of vocalization thus were not restricted to behavioral estrus and occurred much earlier in the estrous cycle than in most species that produce fertility-advertisement calls. Both herd composition and elephant identity also affected rates of vocalization. Vocalizations therefore may not be reliable signals of actual fertility. However, the increase in vocalizations in advance of estrus may attract males to the herd prior to ovulation, facilitating both male-male competition and female choice. Once present in the herd, males may then switch strategies to use more reliable chemical and visual cues to detect ovulating females.     

Seasonal Differences in Social Behavior among Adult and Juvenile Meadow Voles,Microtus pennsylvanicus

Seasonal differences in behavioral interactions between wild-caught adult and juvenile meadow voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus, were measured in paired encounters in a neutral arena. Seasonal differences existed in the adult-juvenile paired encounters. Early in the breeding season (May—Aug.) paired encounters between adult males and juvenile males were more agonistic than other adultjuvenile pairings. Late in the breeding season (Sep.—Dec.) adult female-juvenile male encounters were more agonistic than other adult-juvenile pairings. Odor preferences of juveniles were determined in a Y-maze olfactometer. Juveniles did not demonstrate seasonal differences in odor preference. Males preferred the odor of adult females to the odor of adult males or their own odor. Females preferred the scent of an adult male to the odor of an adult female, but did not show a preference between their own odor and the odor of an adult male or an adult female. The results are consistent with hypotheses that state in a promiscuous species, females should be philopatric, and males should disperse as a consequence of adult competition. The data suggest that agonistic behavior by adults may regulate juvenile dispersal and recruitment, and define the composition of overwintering groups.     

Aggression in the female golden hamster: effects of reproductive state and social isolation

To gain information on possible hormonal correlates, the aggressive behavior of intact female hamsters towards males was observed at various times during the estrous cycle, pseudopregnancy, pregnancy, and lactation. For methodological information, estrous cycle females also were tested after varying periods of social isolation. It was found that pregnant and especially lactating hamsters were more aggressive than pseudopregnant or estrous cycling females. Comparisons of days within each reproductive condition showed that aggression tended to be higher on certain days: the day preceding behavioral estrus of the estrous cycle, Day 10 of pregnancy, and the first 5 days of lactation. Except for pseudopregnancy, sexual behavior unaccompanied by aggression occurred at some time during all reproductive conditions, and both sexual behavior and aggression were found to occur together on Day 10 of pregnancy and Day 1 of lactation. The changes in aggressive behavior associated with reproductive states were attributed to increased male interest, inhibition by ovarian hormones, and facilitation by prolactin. Increasing periods of social isolation also were found to be associated with increased aggression. It was suggested that this effect, too. might have been due to increased prolactin levels.     

Influence of age and individual identity in the use of breeding colony habitat by male Weddell seals in Erebus Bay,Antarctica

Male–male contest behavior can contribute to spatial distributions of male pinnipeds during breeding seasons. To maximize breeding opportunities, the most competitive males would be expected to be surrounded by the highest numbers of reproductive-age females. As information regarding fine-scale spatial ecology of Weddell seals is lacking, we performed an exploratory study using kernel density analyses to evaluate age-specific habitat use of male Weddell seals in Erebus Bay, Antarctica. Additionally, we investigated the relationship between age and number of surrounding reproductive-age females using a competing set of regression models in a Bayesian framework that considered different functional forms of age while incorporating individual heterogeneity. As male adult Weddell seals aged, to at least 20 years, they were more likely to be found in areas associated with the greatest densities of reproductive-age females, but individual heterogeneity also influenced the number of reproductive-age female neighbors. The youngest males tended to haul out in offshore areas associated with better hunting, and older males tended to settle in more nearshore areas associated with more pup production. Our findings from this preliminary investigation indicate that male Weddell seal spatial behavior during the breeding season varies with age and individual and might be related to reproductive activity.     

Male-female interactions of sika deer (cervus nippon) in nara park through allogrooming during breeding and rutting seasons

The frequency and pattern of interactions between males and females of sika deerCervus nippon were surveyed in 3 sites of Nara Park, central Japan, mainly via observation of allogrooming frequency and aggressive behavior throughout the breeding and rutting seasons. In the breeding season, the Daibutsuden group contained several adult males while Ukimido and Hakuba groups contained only a few. Most allogroomers were adult and subadult females. Females groomed the same sex more than the opposite sex at Daibutsuden, but at the other 2 sites, there was no such difference. In general, male-female interactions through allogrooming frequencies in the breeding season were not significantly fewer than intra-sex interactions. Males that attacked females tended to be groomed by females in the breeding season. In the rutting season, all adult males identified in the breeding season were absent at the usual observation sites, and newly arrived males showed defensive and/or mating behaviors. Females groomed adult males in the rutting season regardless of group status or display of sexual interactions. This suggests that male-female allogrooming in the breeding season does not relate to mating in the following rutting season, but may reduce tension in the group during the current breeding season.     

Role of vocalizations in the reproductive cycle of ring doves (Streptopelia risoria): effects of hypoglossal nerve section on the reproductive behavior and physiology of the female

The role of vocalizations in the reproductive cycle of female ring doves was investigated. Two-stage bilateral hypoglossal nerve section (HNS) was performed on adult females to alter their cooing and they were observed for courtship behavior with the same stimulus males used in preoperation behavioral tests. The HNS females showed a reduction in both the vocalization and wing flipping components of nest-coos but no changes in other female courtship behaviors. In addition, the HNS females failed to show the typical male courtship-induced follicular growth observed in sham-operated females. The behavior of stimulus males did not differ between groups and therefore could not account for the failure of follicular growth in the HNS females. These data suggest that the female's performance of nest-coos, or factors associated with it, may stimulate her own follicular growth.     

Hormonal correlates of social status and courtship display in the cooperatively lekking lance-tailed manakin

Though cooperative behavior has long been a focus of evolutionary biology, the proximate hormonal mechanisms underlying cooperative interactions remain poorly understood. Lance-tailed manakins (Chiroxiphia lanceolata) are tropical passerines that form long-term male-male partnerships and cooperate in paired male courtship displays. To elucidate patterns of natural hormonal variation in relation to cooperation and reproductive behavior, we examined circulating androgen levels of male lance-tailed manakins in relation to social status, display behavior, and time of year. We found significantly higher circulating androgen levels in alpha-ranked (breeding) males compared to non-alpha adult males in the population. Beta males, which participated in courtship displays but did not copulate, had androgen levels indistinguishable from those of unpaired adult males that never displayed for females, suggesting that an elevated concentration of plasma testosterone in tropical lekking birds may be associated primarily with copulatory behavior or other status-specific traits, and not the performance of courtship display. Androgens decreased throughout the breeding season for males of all status categories. Interestingly, alphas that displayed for females in the observation session prior to sampling had lower androgen levels than alphas that did not display for females. This pattern may result from female discrimination against alpha males at display areas with high levels of social conflict among males, as social disruption is linked to elevated testosterone in many species. However, recent change of a display partner was not related to alpha androgen levels. We discuss alternative explanations and the possible implications of these results, and generate several testable predictions for future investigations.     

繁殖期不同时段赤腹松鼠巢域的变化

繁殖期巢域的研究对了解繁殖期间动物的社群关系、种群动态、繁殖策略等有重要作用。2009 年3 ～12月和2010 年3 ～9 月对洪雅县赤腹松鼠的巢域面积变化进行观察。使用最小凸多边形(Minimum convex polygon,MCP)法计算赤腹松鼠各时期的巢域面积,结果显示: (1)整个繁殖期,雄性赤腹松鼠的巢域面积为1.34 ±0. 34 hm² ,显著大于雌性的巢域面积(0.60 ± 0. 08 hm² ); (2)雄性赤腹松鼠在求偶交配期主动增加其巢域面积,可能会增加雄性与雌性的遇见率,从而增加与雌性的交配数量;雌性赤腹松鼠在求偶交配期不主动增加巢域面积,而是具有较为稳定的活动范围。在妊娠育幼期雌性的巢域面积会减小,这可能是雌性为提高后代的成活率,在增加能量和降低捕食风险两者间做出的权衡;(3)整个繁殖期,雌性赤腹松鼠间无巢域重叠现象,而雄性间存在巢域重叠。两性之间仅在求偶交配期存在巢域重叠现象,因此,雌性赤腹松鼠在繁殖期有较强的领域性。     

Use of behavioral measures to assess reproductive status in maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus)

Captive breeding efforts of the threatened maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) have been plagued by a lack of reliable reproduction and a high rate of neonatal mortality. A particular problem for animal managers has been the ability to detect pregnancy in a noninvasive manner. Pseudopregnancies are common, and many staff hours are expended preparing for a birth that may not occur. The objectives of our study were to document changes in behavior during the breeding season in captive maned wolves in order to determine if behaviors other than sexual (i.e., copulation) could be used to distinguish nonbreeding from breeding pairs and, further, whether successful breeding pairs (young born) could be distinguished behaviorally from breeding pairs that did not produce young (pseudopregnant). Between 1988 and 1994, behavioral data were collected during the annual reproductive season from 52 maned wolf pairings (27 males, 26 females) housed at 17 North American institutions. Breeding animals showed significant increases in rates of affiliative behaviors (approach, friendly) and the amount of time spent in close association (social) during the estrous period, compared to pre- and post-estrous periods. In contrast, the behavior of nonbreeding pairs varied little throughout the breeding season. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) showed that several behavioral measurements during certain reproductive periods were useful in discriminating between nonbreeding and breeding animals (rates of friendly and social behavior for males, marking and social behavior for females). Unsuccessful (pseudopregnant) and successful breeding pairs could be further distinguished on the basis of agonistic and approach behavior frequencies (successful females showed higher rates of agonistic and lower rates of approach behavior during certain periods; successful males had higher rates of both behaviors). Discriminant equations for key behavioral measurements and examples of their practical application are presented. DFA provides animal managers with an effective, noninvasive technique for assessing the reproductive status of maned wolf pairs. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.