Morphometric analysis ofMacaca arctoides andM. thibetana in relation to other macaque species

As a first step in reviewing the classification of the two stump-tailed macaque species,Macaca arctoides andM. thibetana, as compared with other species of the genusMacaca, 72 linear dental and cranial variables of 11 macaque species were examined by morphometric analyses. The results indicate that the two stump-tailed species are the largest of the macaques and although rather similar overall, they exhibit significant differences in the pattern of variation in most of the five skull regions as shown by Principal Components and Canonical Variate Analyses. Euclidean Distances based on Canonical Variate scores indicate that the females ofM. arctoides andM. thibetana are more widely separated than eight other pairs of macaque species, and that the separations of the respective males are greater than those of three other pairs of species. These findings are consistent withFooden's classification of the stump-tailed macaques as two separate species (Fooden, 1976;Fooden et al., 1985). The present results suggest, as other researchers have proposed on the basis of external features, biochemistry and genetics, that the two stump-tailed macaque species andM. assamensis are closely related. The results also tentatively imply associations withM. fuscata andM. sylvanus but these require further study. The findings have implications for the assessment of the various Chinese Pleistocene macaque fossils.     

Hybridization and Stratification of Nuclear Genetic Variation in Macaca mulatta and M. fascicularis

We used genotypes for 13 short tandem repeats (STRs) to assess the genetic diversity within and differentiation among populations of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from mainland Asia and long-tailed macaques (M. fascicularis) from mainland and insular Southeast Asia. The subjects were either recently captured in the wild or derived from wild-caught founders maintained in captivity for biomedical research. A large number of alleles are shared between the 2 macaque species but a significant genetic division between them persists. The distinction is more clear-cut among populations that are not, or are unlikely to have recently been, geographically contiguous. Our results suggest there has been significant interspecific nuclear gene flow between rhesus macaques and long-tailed macaques on the mainland. Comparisons of mainland and island populations of long-tailed macaques reflect marked genetic subdivisions due to barriers to migration. Geographic isolation has restricted gene flow, allowing island populations to become subdivided and genetically differentiated. Indonesian long-tailed macaques show evidence of long-term separation and genetic isolation from the mainland populations, whereas long-tailed macaques from the Philippines and Mauritius both display evidence of founder effects and subsequent isolation, with the impact from genetic drift being more profound in the latter.     

Morphological and Body Color Variation in Thai <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fascicularis fascicularis</Emphasis> North and South of the Isthmus of Kra

Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis fascicularis) are widely distributed in Southeast Asia and are morphologically and genetically (Tosi et al. in International Journal of Primatology 23:161–178, 2002) distinguishable on either side of the Isthmus of Kra (ca. 10.5°N). We compared the somatometry and body color of 15 local populations of long-tailed macaques in Thailand distributed over areas from 6.5°N to 16.3°N and also a Thai rhesus macaque population at 17.2°N. Limb proportions and body color variation follow the geographical trend. However, contrary to a previous report, body size does not decrease with latitude in the northern group and also in the southern (southerly distributed) rhesus macaque. Relative tail length (RTL) and color contrast in yellow between the back and thigh are the sole traits that distinctively separate the 2 groups: the southern group has a long relative tail length (RTL >125%) and small color contrast, whereas the northern group has a short RTL (<120%) and large color contrast. The southern rhesus macaques appear to have somatometric and body color traits that follow the geographical trend in long-tailed macaques, though they maintain their distinctive species-specific traits of shorter RTL (ca. 55%), shorter relative facial length, and a bipartite body color pattern. Researchers assume that the northern group of long-tailed macaques and the southern rhesus macaques had undergone partial introgression with each other. Montane refugia present during the glacial period are localities in which introgression occurred in long-tailed macaques.     

Morphological studies on the Sulawesi macaques I: Phyletic analysis of body color

The body color of Sulawesi macaques was measured quantitatively and compared among the different monkeys. As a result, divergence models for extant Sulawesi macaques, withtonkeana as the starting point and fading as the sole direction of color change, were inferred as follows: (1) fading slightly on the upper half of the body—nigra, fading more on the proximal part of the body—nigrescens; (2) fading over the whole body—maura; (3) fading greatly on the legs—hecki; and (4) fading on the distal part of the body—ochreata, fading more over the whole body, including the proximal part of the body—brunnescens. The color changed progressively in the order of (1) through (4). The divergence model, excluding the position ofhecki (3), supports the speciation model ofFooden (1969). If the proto-Sulawesi macaques had a body color pattern similar to the livingnemestrina, darkening would have been necessary for the evolution of the Sulawesi macaques after their immigration, and it may have been acquired as an adaptation to the ground (forest floor) living nature of the Sulawesi macaques, together with influences deriving from the insularity and/or from the absence of predators.     

Survey of the long-tailed macaques introduced onto Tinjil Island,Indonesia

From February 1988 though June 1990, 475 adult long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) were released on Tinjil Island to establish a breeding program that will provide monkeys for biomedical research while contributing to Indonesia's primate conservation efforts. A survey was conducted during the summer of 1990 to assess the status of the island's population. Basic demographic data were consistent with those from other field studies of long-tailed macaques, and estimates of reproductivity suggest a successful breeding program. The facility established on Tinjil Island should serve as a useful model for future primate resource and conservation programs. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Body Size and Proportions and Pelage Color of Free-Ranging Macaca mulatta from a Zone of Hybridization in Northeastern Thailand

Rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and long-tailed (M. fascicularis) macaques belong to the same species, and are parapatric within a zone that lies between 15° and 20° N on the Indochinese peninsula. Researchers have reported probable hybrids between the 2 species from that zone, but have not studied the extent of introgression. To test for phenotypic evidence of hybridization, we collected body mass, morphometrics (body size and proportions), and pelage color readings from free-ranging rhesus living close to the zonal boundary at Wat Tham Pa Mak Ho (WTPMH), Wang Saphun district, Loei province, northeastern Thailand (17°14′N, 101°47′E). Female WTPMH rhesus macaques (n =12) were 10–20% smaller, but with a greater relative tail length than the captive Chinese or Indian female rhesus. Female WTPMH were larger than the free-ranging long-tailed macaques, but with similar limb proportions and a shorter relative tail length. The WTPMH rhesus macaques also displayed the bipartite pelage color pattern typical of Macaca mulatta . The evidence suggests slight contribution of long-tailed macaques to the gene pool of the WTPMH population. Further sampling of other macaque populations within the zone and genetic analysis are essential to address better the question of hybridization. Determination of the distribution and range of biobehavioral variation of macaques within the zone is urgently needed, because their habitat is being rapidly destroyed by deforestation, and their demography and social structure are threatened by artificial disturbance.     

Social Behavior of Captive Indochinese and Insular Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) Following Transfer to a New Facility

There are measurable differences in behavior, physiology, social organization, and geographic distribution within and between various species of macaques. We collected information on the social behavior of captive Macaca fascicularis from Indochina and island populations after they had been transferred to a new environment and new social groups. While some changes in behavior occurred over time, we found no decrease in high levels of agonistic behaviors. We interpret this finding in light of previous research reporting that long-tailed macaques show low levels of habitatuation to novelty and are highly aroused in comparison to other macaque species. We found predictable differences in behavior for males, females, and infants, in which infants played more, females had higher levels of contact proximity to other individuals, and males exhibited more sexual and threat behavior. A comparison of social behavior in long-tailed macaques from different origins indicate that Indochinese macaques are generally less affiliative and Indochinese males are more aggressive than their insular counterparts. Differences among macaque species, and within the fascicularis-group, should be considered in management of captive colonies and when interpreting research data.     

Genetic Variation in Wild and Hatchery Stocks of Suminoe Oyster (Crassostrea ariakensis) Assessed by PCR-RFLP and Microsatellite Markers

Genetic variation in wild Asian populations and U.S. hatchery stocks of Crassostrea ariakensis was examined using polymerase chain reactions with restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of both the mitochondrial COI gene and the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 1 region and using 3 microsatellite markers. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance and pairwise comparisons revealed significant differentiation (P < 0.05) between samples from the northern region, represented by collections from China and Japan, and 2 of 3 samples from southern China. PCR-RFLP patterns were identified that were diagnostic for the northern (N-type) and southern (S-type) groups. Microsatellite marker profiles were used to assign each oyster to one of the two northern or two southern populations. Results for more than 97% of the oysters were consistent with the PCR-RFLP patterns observed for each individual in that oysters with N-type patterns were assigned to one of the northern populations and those with S-type patterns to one of the southern populations. At one site of the Beihai (B) region in southern China a mix of individuals with either the N-type or S-type PCR-RFLP genotypes was found. No heterozygotes at the nuclear ITS-1 locus were found in the sample, possibly indicating reproductive isolation in sympatry. Microsatellite assignment test results of the B individuals were also consistent with identifications as either the N-type or S-type based on PCR-RFLP patterns. The parental population for one hatchery stock was this B sample, which initially was composed of almost equal numbers of northern and southern genetic types. After hatchery spawns, however, more than 97% of the progeny fell into the northern genetic group by PCR-RFLP and microsatellite assignment test analyses, indicating that the individuals with the southern genotype contributed little to the spawn, owing to gametic incompatibility, differential larval survival, or a difference in timing of sexual maturity. Overall, results suggested that oysters collected as C. ariakensis in this study, and likely in other studies as well, include two different sympatric species with some degree of reproductive isolation.     

Prevalence of glucose intolerance in free-ranging Macaca fascicularis of Mauritius

Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTTs) were carried out on 30 free-ranging long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) on the island of Mauritius, following the suggestion that severe glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus might be prevalent in this macaque population. OGTTs revealed no evidence of frank diabetes mellitus in the sample. However, 13% of individuals showed impaired glucose tolerance, with preserved insulin secretion, suggesting the presence of the target tissue resistance to insulin characteristic of human noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). The macaques with impaired glucose tolerance were neither obese nor aged. Glucose levels at all time points of the OGTT in normal macaques in our free-ranging sample were lower than reported in captive populations, perhaps due to greater physical activity. Our observations demonstrate that a genetic predisposition to glucose intolerance does exist in M. fascicularis, and that this condition, well documented in laboratory macaques, is not simply an artifact of captivity.     

Variation in blood proteins and mitochondrial DNA within and between local populations of longtail macaques,Macaca fascicularis on the Island of Java, Indonesia

We examined 31 blood protein loci, and restriction fragment length profiles of a PCR product of mitochondrial DNA containing the D-loop region using five kinds of restriction endonucleases (HaeIII,HinfI,MboII,MspI, andSau3 AI) in order to quantify the level of genetic variation of longtail macaques,Macaca fascicularis. Samples were collected from nine social groups in five localities of West Java, Indonesia. The average heterozygosity per individual was 0.060 and 15.7% of the loci were polymorphic (P_poly) over all populations in the protein analysis. There was no mtDNA haplotype variation within either social groups or local populations. To the contrary, great diversity was observed among local populations. Both nuclear diversity (measured byNei's standard genetic distance) and mitochondrial diversity (measured by sequence divergence) showed a significantly positive correlation with geographic distance. There was no significant correlation between these two genetic markers, however. The genetic structure of the population was evaluated in terms of local inbreeding and temporal changes in allele frequency. Differences between nuclear and mitochondrial data are discussed in relation to gender specific migration and lineage sorting.     

A rapid quantitative real-time PCR-based DNA quantification assay coupled with species--assignment capabilities for two hybridizing Macaca species

Regional populations of rhesus and long-tailed macaques exhibit fundamental differences in mitochondrial DNA, short tandem repeat and single nucleotide polymorphism variation between mainland and insular Southeast Asian populations. Some studies have revealed genetic admixture between these species due to natural hybridization and human-assisted intercrosses. A quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assay was developed to efficiently determine the species of origin of a macaque biological sample, and to quantify the species-specific template DNA. Prior knowledge of species identity and DNA concentrations are crucial for maintaining cost-effective methods and accurate DNA analysis. DNA from 109 regionally representative rhesus and long-tailed macaques was qPCR amplified to determine the species and template quantities. Of the 19 Vietnamese long-tailed macaques, 3 samples were discovered to be hybrids.     

Allozyme divergence among four species ofPodaechmea s. l. and the status ofUrsulaea (Bromeliaceae, Bromelioideae)

The genetic relationships ofAechmea mexicana, A. lueddemanniana, A. macvaughii andA. tuitensis were investigated using starch gel electrophoresis. Eight enzyme systems encoded by ten putative gene loci were resolved in seventeen populations.Nei's (1978) genetic distances were obtained from allelic frequencies and used with UPGMA algorithm. Results indicate that some populations belonging to different species display genetic similarities closer to each other than to some conspecific populations. Our results do not support the proposed genusUrsulaea (Read & Baensch 1994), sinceA. tuitensis was closer toA. lueddemanniana andA. mexicana than toA. macvaughii.     

海南岛油茶种质资源遗传多样性的SRAP分析

为了解海南岛油茶(Camellia oleifera)种质资源的遗传多样性,采用SRAP分子标记,对海南岛油茶主要分布区的31个居群进行了遗传多样性和亲缘关系分析。结果表明,海南岛油茶资源的遗传多样性低,物种水平的多态性百分率(PPB)为98.30%,Nei’s基因多样性(H)为0.222 8,Shannon信息指数(I)为0.353 8;居群水平的PPB=40.96%,观测等位基因数(Na)为1.409 6,有效等位基因数(Ne)为1.237 1, H=0.138 5, I=0.208 3,这与海南岛油茶丰富的表型多样性水平不一致。海南岛油茶资源遗传分化较大,居群间基因交流有限,不同居群间的遗传分化指数(Gst)为0.380,基因流(Nm)为0.813 91。遗传变异主要发生在居群内,有38.05%的变异存在居群间,61.95%存在于居群内。遗传距离为0.022 6～0.276 4,平均为0.107 7,居群间的亲缘关系较近。UPGMA聚类分析表明,在遗传距离为0.11处,可将31个油茶居群聚为6类,表现出明显的行政区域性,而与地理距离关系不大。因此,海南岛油茶资源遗传多样性低,亲缘关系近可能导致自交或近交不亲和,可能是海南油茶林分花量大而结实低的主要内在原因。     

Fishing in Macaca fascicularis: A Rarely Observed Innovative Behavior

Observations of fishing behavior in nonhuman primates are rare and isolated, and there is no prior published observation on the behavior in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). We observed fishing behavior in 3 groups of long-tailed macaques from 2 separate study sites in North Sumatra and East Kalimantan, Indonesia. We propose that the behavior is rare and fulfills the requirements for classification as innovation. Further, all of the fishing individuals were watched by other members of their group, with their actions inciting attempts at fishing by them. We consider the possibility that the behavior has the potential to become cultural within the populations.     

NRAMP1 polymorphism in a hybrid population between Japanese and Taiwanese macaques in Wakayama, Japan

A macaque population produced by the hybridization of native Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) and introduced Taiwanese macaques (M. cyclopis) in Wakayama Prefecture was shown to possess three DNA haplotypes of the natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (NRAMP1). Based on genotyping and comparison with M. fuscata populations, it was revealed that the introduced M. cyclopis population was polymorphic for the NRAMP1 locus. Extensive crossbreeding of the introduced species with the native species was confirmed using this genetic marker and the proportion of M. cyclopis genes was 57.4%. Results of statistical tests suggested non-random mating in the hybrid population.     

Molecular and other biological evidence supports the recognition of at least three species of brown kiwi

The presence of morphologically crypticlineages within the threatened brown kiwi ofNew Zealand has confounded their taxonomy. Recent genetic studies (Herbert and Daugherty1994; Baker et al. 1995) revealed that atleast two phylogenetic species exist within thebrown kiwi, and suggested that further researchshould resolve the taxonomic problems. In thispaper we extend genetic analyses to includesequences from 58 brown kiwi representing fivephylogenetic lineages for four mitochondrialloci (control region, cytochrome b,ATPase 6 and ATPase 8). Major lineages ofbrown kiwi are shown to be reciprocallymonophyletic, and align with other biologicaldifferences in the ecology, behavior,morphology and parasites of kiwi. BecausemtDNA sequences of major lineages of kiwi arenot evolving in a clocklike manner, we used anew penalized likelihood method withrate-smoothing to date the divergence of NorthIsland brown kiwi and the geographicallyisolated Okarito population (rowi) at about 6.2Mya. These lineages diverged about 8.2 Myafrom the brown kiwi in Fiordland and Haast inthe southern part of the South Island, and arethus older than the species of spotted kiwi(5.8 Mya). Given their distinctness, long-termgeographical isolation, lack of hybridizationin introduced populations, and accumulation ofnew biological characters within theselineages, we hypothesize that reproductiveincompatibilities have probably arisen as well. We therefore recommend that these divergentlineages be formally recognized as fullspecies; Apteryx mantelli should bere-instated for the North Island brown kiwi,A. australis should be restricted to thetokoeka, and a new species A. rowiishould be erected to describe the rowi atOkarito. Tokoeka should be split into at leastthree conservation management units (Haast,Fiordland and Stewart Island [Rakiura]), butfurther research is required to determine theexact relationships and status of theselineages. Further investigation is alsorequired into the genetic structuring of theNorth Island brown kiwi to confirm conservationmanagement units on the North Island.     

Genetic structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Miscanthus sinensis</Emphasis> ssp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">condensatus</Emphasis> (Poaceae) on Miyake Island: implications for revegetation of volcanically devastated sites

We investigated the genetic structure of Miscanthus sinensis ssp. condensatus on Miyake Island, which was devastated by a volcanic eruption in 2000, by amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) for chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation, to develop recommendations for the revegetation of devastated sites. Genetic differentiation among populations was significant, and five populations were classified into three regional groups. The aspect ratios of leaf-blades varied significantly among populations, but both geographical proximity and morphological similarities did not precisely reflect genetic similarities. In the airport population, we found a rare haplotype that may have been transmitted from outside the island. These findings will assist the revegetation of the island.     

The Influence of Age,Sex, and Rank on Yawning Behavior in Two Species of Macaques (Macaca fascicularis and M. fuscata)

Yawning behavior was studied in two species of macaques: the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and the Japanese macaque (M. fuscata). Japanese macaques yawned much more than long-tailed macaques. Age, sex, and dominance rank exerted different effects on yawning in the two species. In the long-tailed macaques, sex differences in frequency of yawning emerged only after sexual maturity; yawning rates increased significantly in both males and females as they reached sexual maturity; and, among males, dominance rank was positively correlated with frequency of yawning. Differently, in the Japanese macaques, males, both mature and immature, yawned more than same-aged females; sexual maturity was associated with an increase in yawning in males only; and male rank did not correlate with the frequency of yawning. Regardless of interspecific differences, the overall results supported only in part the finding that, in Old World monkeys, yawning is largely influenced by plasma concentrations of androgens. There was evidence that social factors were also important in influencing the age-sex class distribution of yawning.     

Genetic relationships between European and Siberian larch,Larix spp. (Pinaceae), studied by allozymes. Is the Polish larch a hybrid between these two species?

Thirteen populations ofLarix decidua subsp.decidua and subsp.polonica, and three populations ofL. sibirica were investigated by starch-gel electrophoresis. In the populations assayed 61 alleles at 17 loci were revealed. The allozyme data support the earlier observations about close relationships between these two larch species. Nei's genetic distances betweenL. decidua andL. sibirica were relatively small (D = 0.057), however, almost five times larger, on average, than those between populations of the same species. Results obtained in this study disagree withBobrov's hypothesis about the hybrid origin of the Polish larch and suggest a direct origin from the European larch.