Resource tracking and its conservation implications for an obligate frugivore (Procnias tricarunculatus,the three‐wattled bellbird)

In Monteverde, Costa Rica, the vulnerable Three‐wattled Bellbird (Procnias tricarunculatus) feeds primarily upon the fruit of Lauraceae species during its reproductive and post‐reproductive seasons. To understand and advance appropriate conservation measures, this study identified the bellbird's foraging challenges in its search for a temporally and spatially fluctuating resource. Although there are at least 96 species of Lauraceae found in the five life zones of Monteverde, the distinct distributions of tree species both among and within life zones require the bellbirds to track seasonal fruiting across the various zones. In this 6‐year study, we monitored the fruiting of tree species and bellbird abundance in 24 study plots within its post‐reproductive life zone, the Premontane Wet forest, to identify preferred bellbird food resources and how the fruiting of these species drives the spatial distribution of the bellbird. Our research revealed phenological patterns of annual, biennial, and triennial fruiting with high levels of fruiting synchrony within several identified key fruit species. Of critical conservation importance is that no single species of Lauraceae produced a consistent food supply for bellbirds each year. Therefore, even within life zones, the bellbird's survival depends on its mobility to search for and obtain fruit, as well as the availability of fruits of multiple tree species. The conservation implications include focused attention on multiple core areas within given life zones, protection of existing forest and remnant trees, and forest restoration with plantings of multiple tree species. We suspect that other tropical frugivorous species face similar conservation challenges.     

Reproductive phenology of Melastomataceae species with contrasting reproductive systems: contemporary and historical drivers

• Flowering and fruiting are key events in the life history of plants, and both are critical to their reproductive success. Besides the role of evolutionary history, plant reproductive phenology is regulated by abiotic factors and shaped by biotic interactions with pollinators and seed dispersers. In Melastomataceae, a dominant Neotropical family, the reproductive systems vary from allogamous with biotic pollination to apomictic, and seed dispersal varies from dry (self‐dispersed) to fleshy (animal‐dispersed) fruits. Such variety in reproductive strategies is likely to affect flowering and fruiting phenologies.
• In this study, we described the reproductive phenology of 81 Melastomataceae species occurring in two biodiversity hotspots: the Atlantic rain forest and the campo rupestre. We aim to disentangle the role of abiotic and biotic factors defining flowering and fruiting times of Melastomataceae species, considering the contrasting breeding and seed dispersal systems, and their evolutionary history.
• In both vegetation types, pollinator‐dependent species had higher flowering seasonality than pollinator‐independent ones. Flowering patterns presented phylogenetic signal regardless of vegetation type. Fruiting of fleshy‐fruited species was seasonal in campo rupestre but not in Atlantic rain forest; the fruiting of dry‐fruited species was also not seasonal in both vegetation types. Fruiting showed a low phylogenetic signal, probably because the influence of environment and dispersal agents on fruiting time is stronger than the phylogenetic affinity.
• Considering these ecophylogenetic patterns, our results indicate that flowering may be shaped by the different reproductive strategies of Melastomataceae lineages, while fruiting patterns may be governed mainly by the seed dispersal strategy and flowering time, with less phylogenetic influence.

     

Reproductive phenology of two Mimusops species in relation to climate,tree diameter and canopy position in Benin (West Africa)

Assessing species phenology provides useful understanding about their autecology, to contribute to management strategies. We monitored reproductive phenology of Mimusops andongensis and Mimusops kummel, and its relationship with climate, tree diameter and canopy position. We sampled trees in six diameter classes and noted their canopy position. For both species flowering began in the dry season through to the rainy season, but peaked in the dry season, whilst fruiting occurred in the rainy season and peaked during the most humid period. Flowering was positively correlated with temperature. Conversely, fruiting was negatively correlated with temperature and positively with rainfall, only in the Guineo‐Sudanian zone. For M. andongensis, flowering and fruiting prevalences were positively linked to stem diameter, while only flowering was significantly related to canopy position. For M. kummel, the relationship with stem diameter was significant for flowering prevalence only and in the Guineo‐Sudanian zone. Results suggest that phylogenetic membership is an important factor restricting Mimusops species phenology. Flowering and fruiting of both species are influenced by climate, and consequently climate change might shift their phenological patterns. Long‐term investigations, considering flowering and fruiting abortion, will help to better understand the species phenology and perhaps predict demographic dynamics.     

Disparity in Onset Timing and Frequency of Flowering and Fruiting Events in Two Bornean Peat‐Swamp Forests

The timing and frequency of flowering and fruiting events are key tropical forest characteristics that have substantial influence on fauna. Although our understanding of geographic variation in habitat‐wide timing and frequency of flowering and fruiting is advancing, corresponding information for individual tree species is limited. Thus, we compared climate and reproductive phenology of 16 tree species over 70 mo at two Bornean tropical peat‐swamp forest sites. We found significant inter‐site correlations in rainfall and temperature, and only small absolute temperature differences. In both sites, most species exhibited within‐site synchrony in flowering and fruiting onset. Broad‐scale flowering and fruiting onset frequency classifications showed high congruence between sites. Significant correlations in flowering and fruiting onset timing between sites were found for only 19 and 17 percent of the species, respectively. This remained the case when applying 1‐ and 2‐month lag periods for both sites, with neither site consistently lagging behind. Significant differences in the exact frequency of new flowering and fruiting events were detected for 44 and 58 percent of species, respectively, and no significant relationships between the onset timing synchrony and exact frequency of new reproductive events were found for either flowers or fruit. We conclude that inter‐site climatic and ecological similarities do not necessarily lead to high inter‐site synchrony in either onset timing or exact frequency of tree reproductive events. Potential reasons for this are discussed, as are the implications for understanding tropical forest ecology and improving forest restoration project seed collections.     

Phenology of Tree Species in Bolivian Dry Forests

Phenological characteristics of 453 individuals representing 39 tree species were investigated in two dry forests of the Lomerío region, Department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The leaf, flower, and fruit production of canopy and sub–canopy forest tree species were recorded monthly over a two–year period. Most canopy species lost their leaves during the dry season, whereas nearly all sub–canopy species retained their leaves. Peak leaf fall for canopy trees coincided with the peak of the dry season in July and August. Flushing of new leaves was complete by November in the early rainy season. Flowering and fruiting were bimodal, with a major peak occurring at the end of the dry season (August–October) and a minor peak during the rainy season (January). Fruit development was sufficiently long in this forest that fruiting peaks actually tended to precede flowering peaks by one month. A scarcity of fruit was observed in May, corresponding to the end of the rainy season. With the exception of figs (Ficus), most species had fairly synchronous fruit production. Most canopy trees had small, wind dispersed seeds or fruits that matured during the latter part of the dry season, whereas many sub–canopy tree species produced larger animal– or gravity–dispersed fruits that matured during the peak of the rainy season. Most species produced fruit annually. Lomerio received less rainfall than other tropical dry forests in which phenological studies have been conducted, but rainfall can be plentiful during the dry season in association with the passage of Antarctic cold fronts. Still, phenological patterns in Bolivian dry forests appear to be similar to those of other Neotropical dry forests.     

Flowering and fruiting phenology of Normanbya normanbyi (W. Hill) L. H. Bailey (Arecaceae), a palm endemic to the lowland tropical rainforest of north‐eastern Australia

Abstract Normanbya normanbyi (W. Hill) L. H. Bailey (Arecaceae) is a monoecious, arborescent palm with a very small distribution area within the Daintree rainforest in north‐eastern Australia. Our 2‐year study was focused on the reproductive phenology at the individual and population level. At the population level flowering peaked in the dry season, whereas fruiting was confined to the wet season. Each palm can bear up to three inflorescences/infructescences at the same time. Flowering of each inflorescence is separated from each other by a couple of weeks. A single inflorescence consists of about 1900 staminate and 800 pistillate flowers. The flowering of N. normanbyi is protandrous with a staminate phase lasting 40 days and a pistillate phase of approximately 2 weeks. Between both phases is a non‐flowering phase of about 9 days. Fruit ripening takes 21 weeks, with an average of about 280 ripe fruit per tree. Comparison of three study plots revealed a moderate synchrony of flowering and fruiting initiation in this species of palm. The male phase of flowering shows a higher degree of synchrony than the female phase at the population level. Seasonal regularity of flowering and fruiting peaks appears to be predictable. The general flowering and fruiting phenology of N. normanbyi follows a subannual pattern with a strong tendency towards a continual pattern.     

Reproductive Traits and Phenology of Plants in Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest on the Coromandel Coast of India

Qualitative reproductive traits of 84 plant species belonging to 41 families were studied in tropical dry evergreen forest on the Coromandel coast of India. Majority of species had rotate type, white-coloured, scented flowers, rewarding nectar and pollen and pollinated chiefly by bees. An association between floral traits and pollination spectrum is evident. Bee pollination was prevalent in pollination systems. Among the fruit types, drupe and berry were common in black and red colour respectively, and dispersed by zoochorous mode. Seeds of brown- and green-coloured dry fruits, without any reward were disseminated by wind and explosion. The reproductive phenophase of trees and lianas occurred mostly during the dry period from January to June, which receives rainfall of less than 50 mm a month. However, shrubs showed a peak in flowering and fruiting in wet period. Detailed phenological observations of 22 woody species revealed a seasonal and unimodal pattern in flowering. Although some species were in flower round the year, flowering activity was skewed towards the dry season. The fruiting activity showed a bimodal pattern, one peak in dry season and another in wet season. Many species displayed a temporal aggregation in flowering and fruiting. The significant relation was obtained between reproductive traits and phenology of plants in the tropical dry evergreen forest.     

Reproductive phenology of a wet forest understorey in the Western Ghats, South India

The reproductive phenology of 60 understorey species was monitored at monthly intervals for 20 months in a medium elevation wet evergreen forest in the Southern Western Ghats. The life forms monitored were herbs (including terrestrial orchids), shrubs and small trees. Flowering and fruiting were non‐uniform with a dry season flowering peak and wet season fruiting peak. Flowering in the understorey correlated negatively with rainfall. No significant correlation was detected for fruiting. Life forms had flowering and fruiting peaks at different times of the year.     

Aggregated recruitment patterns under adult crowns in Photinia glabra,a bird‐dispersed tree species

To clarify recruitment patterns of Photinia glabra, which is an evergreen, broad‐leaved, bird‐dispersed tree species, we analyzed spatial distribution in P. glabra recruits at each growth stage and demography of current‐year seedlings with respect to distributions of adults in a warm‐temperate secondary forest, western Japan. Although individuals ≥ 5 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) that had nearly produced fruits showed a random distribution, seedlings (≥ 1 year old, < 10‐cm stem length [SL]), small saplings (10 ≤ SL < 30 cm) and large saplings (≥ 30‐cm SL, < 5‐cm DBH) were clumped and associated with reproductive adults at approximately 2–3‐m scales, nearly equal to their average crown radius. Based on monitoring the demography of current‐year seedlings, emerged seedling density profoundly decreased, and no seedlings survived at longer than an adult's crown scales, with distance‐dependent mortality as a result of disease and herbivory not greatly affecting the current‐year seedling mortality. Thus, aggregated seed dispersal under the crown of adult P. glabra would directly influence the distribution of recruits for P. glabra in this forest. Of the bird‐dispersed tree species in this forest, P. glabra produced the highest amount of fruits during large crop years, and their fruits ripened during the late seasonal period (early January), suggesting that birds might be strongly attracted to these species, in turn leading to seeds being deposited mostly under the tree crowns. We propose that dispersal limitation would occur, even in a bird‐dispersed tree species such as P. glabra, owing to plant–bird interactions in the forest.     

Flower and Fruit Availability along a Forest Restoration Gradient

Frugivores and pollinators are two functional groups of animals that help ensure gene flow of plants among sites in landscapes under restoration and to accelerate restoration processes. Resource availability is postulated to be a key factor to structure animal communities using restoration sites, but it remains poorly studied. We expected that diverse forests with many plant growth forms that have less‐seasonal phenological patterns will provide more resources for animals than forests with fewer plant growth forms and strongly seasonal phenological patterns. We studied forests where original plantings included high tree species diversity. We studied resource provision (richness and abundance of flowers and fruits) of all plant growth forms, in three restoration sites of different ages compared to a reference forest, investigating whether plant phenology changes with restoration process. We recorded phenological data for reproductive plant individuals (351 species) with monthly sampling over 2 years, and found that flower and fruit production have been recovered after one decade of restoration, indicating resource provision for fauna. Our data suggest that a wide range of plant growth forms provides resource complementarities to those of planted tree species. Different flower phenologies between trees and non‐trees seem to be more evident in a forest with high non‐tree species diversity. We recommend examples of ideal species for planting, both at the time of initial planting and post‐planting during enrichment. These management actions can minimize shortage and periods of resource scarcity for frugivorous and nectarivorous fauna, increasing probability of restoring ecological processes and sustainability in restoration sites.     

Changes in Macrofungal Communities Following Forest Conversion into Tree Plantations in Southern Brazil

Conversion of diverse native forests to tree monocultures remains an ongoing, worldwide threat to biodiversity. Although the effects of forest conversion have been studied in a wide range of taxonomic groups, the effects on macrofungal communities remain poorly understood. We sampled macrofungal fruiting bodies in the National Forest of São Francisco de Paula in Southern Brazil over 12 months in four different forest habitats: native Araucaria angustifolia forest, A. angustifolia plantation, Pinus taeda or P. elliottii plantation, and Eucalyptus saligna plantation. The distribution of macrofungal species in different functional groups varied among habitats: the macrofungal species composition of the A. angustifolia plantation was more similar to that of the native forest, while the exotic Pinus or Eucalyptus plantations were less similar to the native forest. The conversion of native forest to exotic tree plantations reduced the number of macrofungal decomposer species, probably due to changes in substrate availability and quality. We conclude that fungal diversity and ecosystem functionality require the preservation of native, mature forests and suggest a shift of Brazilian forestry guidelines to encourage the plantations of native species instead of exotics.     

Seed rain of fleshy and dry propagules in different habitats in the temperate rainforests of Chiloé Island,Chile

In temperate rainforests on Chiloé Island in southern Chile (42°S), most canopy trees bear fleshy, avian‐dispersed propagules, whereas emergent tree species have dry, wind‐borne propagules. In the present study, the following hypothesis was tested: regardless of species, fleshy propagules are deposited in greater numbers in canopy gaps and in forest margins and hence have a more heterogeneous seed shadow than wind‐dispersed propagules. To test this hypothesis, the seed rains of these two types of propagules were compared in the following forest habitats: (i) tree‐fall gaps (edges and centre); (ii) forest margins with adjacent pastures; and (iii) under closed canopy (forest interior). Seed collectors (30‐cm diameter) were placed in two (15 and 100 ha) remnant forest patches (n = 60–100 seed collectors per patch) distributed in the four habitats. Seeds were retrieved monthly from each collector during two reproductive seasons (1996, 1997). In both years, the seed rain was numerically dominated by two species with dry propagules (Laureliopsis philippiana and Nothofagus nitida) and three species with fleshy fruits (Drimys winteri, Amomyrtus luma, and Amomyrtus meli). The seed shadows of the two species with dry, wind‐dispersed seeds differed markedly. Seeds of L. philippiana were deposited predominantly in canopy openings, whereas N. nitida seeds fell almost entirely in the forest interior. The fleshy‐fruited species, Drimys and Amomyrtus spp., had similar seed deposition patterns in the various habitats studied, but the between‐year differences in seed rain were greater in Drimys winteri than in Amomyrtus spp. Although no more than 10% of fleshy‐fruited propagules reached the margins of the patch, approximately 7% of these were carried there by birds. Every year, canopy gaps (pooling data from edges and centres) concentrated approximately 60% of the total seed rain of both propagule types in both forest patches. Forest margins received less than 20% of the total seed rain, which was largely dominated by fleshy‐fruited species. Seed shadows were a species‐specific attribute rather than a trait associated with propagule type and dispersal mode.     

Contagious dispersal of seeds of synchronously fruiting species beneath invasive and native fleshy‐fruited trees

In subtropical Australia, many native and invasive plant species rely on a shared suite of frugivores, largely birds, for seed dispersal. Many native plants fruit during summer in this region, whereas most invasive plants fruit during winter, thus providing the opportunity for contagious dispersal of seeds beneath synchronously fruiting species. We sampled invasive and native seed rain beneath the canopy of a native summer‐fruiting tree Guioa semiglauca and an invasive winter‐fruiting tree Cinnamomum camphora, in three study sites over the course of a year. In July, during peak fruiting season for C. camphora and other invasive species, seed rain of invasive species was higher beneath C. camphora than G. semiglauca. This was partly due to the invasive tree Ligustrum lucidum, whose seed rain was three times higher beneath C. camphora than beneath the native tree. In February, seed rain of native species was more abundant beneath the canopy of G. semiglauca than beneath C. camphora, despite the fact that C. camphora was also fruiting at this time. This was probably due to the larger fruit crop produced by G. semiglauca at this time of year. Our study provides evidence that the presence of invasive bird‐dispersed plants may facilitate contagious seed dispersal of other invaders, and likewise native species may facilitate seed spread of other native plants.     

Selection of shade trees in forest restoration plantings should not be based on crown tree architecture alone

The planting of tree seedlings is a common restoration technique in the tropics, and using large‐crowned, fast‐growing shade species is recommended to suppress invasive grasses and accelerate forest succession. We analyzed the effectiveness of shade species in shading the forest floor during the rainy and dry seasons at young forest restoration sites, whether shade changes according to site for a given species, and whether crown architecture can predict the shade level. We measured the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intercepted by the tree crowns of 14 species in two 3‐year‐old restoration plantings. The ability to predict shade based on crown architecture traits was evaluated using multiple linear regressions. The interception of PAR varied according to species, site, and season for seven species and was generally higher during the rainy season. Low values of tree and first branch height and high values of trunk diameter and mean area of a leaf predicted greater light interception. For the dry season, the ability to predict PAR interception was weaker than that for the rainy season and affected by a shorter tree height and a greater crown area. The crown architecture of shade species did not completely predict their shading ability, and the preselection of shade species for forest restoration purposes based only on crown architecture traits is not effective. Therefore, it is important to consider other factors, such as how long trees retain their leaves throughout the year and the soil and management conditions of the sites undergoing restoration, during the selection of species.     

Reproductive phenology of two co‐occurring Neotropical mountain grasslands

Aim

Climate tends to explain phenological variations in tropical ecosystems. However, water availability and nutrient content in soil strongly affect plant communities, especially those on old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes (OCBILs), and may impact these ecosystems’ plant reproductive phenology over time. Here, we compare the reproductive phenology of sandy and stony tropical grasslands, two co‐occurring herbaceous communities of the campo rupestreOCBILs. We asked whether flowering, fruiting and dispersal are seasonal in both grasslands, and whether these phenophases differ due to variations in soil properties. We also asked whether the phenological strategies and the number of flowers and fruits differ between these two grasslands as soil conditions vary.

Location

Serra do Cipó, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Methods

The phenology of herbaceous species of sandy and stony grasslands was monitored monthly over two consecutive years.

Results

Plants on sandy and stony grasslands flowered and fruited throughout the year. We did not find a distinct seasonal pattern at the community level of either studied grassland. However, flowering, fruiting and seed dissemination occurred in stony grasslands mainly during the rainy season, while sandy grassland species flowered in both seasons and fruited and disseminated seed mainly during the dry season, as observed in other savanna vegetation types in the Cerrado. Flower and fruit production was higher in sandy grasslands than in stony grasslands, which may be linked to higher water retention in sandy grassland soils. In both communities, species of Cyperaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Xyridaceae contributed most to overall production, whereas Poaceae and Velloziaceae, two important families in campo rupestre, barely participated in the reproductive phenology during our 2‐yr survey.

Conclusions

Despite a strong seasonal climate, there was no reproductive seasonal pattern at the community level in campo rupestre. This first investigation of Neotropical grassland phenology indicates that the differences in soil content may constrain the grassland reproductive phenology and restrict reproduction of stony grassland species to the most favourable season. Further studies of grassland phenology are necessary to disentangle the relative importance of soil, climate and other triggers, especially fire.     

Microsite determinants of variability in seedling and cutting establishment in tropical forest restoration plantations

Plantations are frequently established on abandoned pasture lands to speed forest recovery. This strategy requires matching a tree species mix with the prevailing microenvironmental conditions. In four degraded pastures of the Mexican Lacandon rainforest, we planted 2,400 trees of 6 species (Guazuma ulmifolia, Inga vera, Ochroma pyramidale, Trichospermum mexicanum, Bursera simaruba, and Spondias mombin) to (1) test survival, initial growth, and establishment costs; (2) evaluate whether vegetative cuttings outperform direct seeding or transplants of nursery‐raised seedlings; (3) determine tree response to herbaceous dominance and soil compaction; and (4) scrutinize the results' consistency across sites and sampling scales of tree–microenvironment interactions (individual tree vs. averaged plot responses). After 2 years, overall survival and growth rates were high for 2 of 3 nursery‐raised species. Contrary to expectations, all seedlings outperformed the cuttings while direct seeding resulted in a cost‐effective option of intermediate efficacy. The impact of soil resistance to root penetration on tree biomass accumulation was species dependent while bulk density was not relevant. Soil‐covering, herbaceous vegetation accelerated growth in 3 of 4 tested species during the dry season. At this initial stage of forest restoration in abandoned pastures, Guazuma and Trichospermum were the most restoration‐effective species. Costs can be reduced by using direct‐seeding Inga and avoiding weeding during the dry season. Finally, our results demonstrate how species selection trials can be misleading due to site variations in tree response and to sampling scales that fail to account for small‐scale environmental heterogeneity. We recommend ways to improve the design of restoration trials.     

Reproductive Phenology of Woody Species in a North Australian Tropical Savanna1

Interspecific and interannual variation in reproductive phenology was quantified for 50 common species of trees and shrubs from a mesic savanna near Darwin, northern Australia. The presence of buds, flowers, and fruit was noted over a 30-month period, from September 1992 to February 1995. Surveys were undertaken at monthly intervals for the less common species, and at bimonthly intervals for ten of the common trees and tall shrubs. The majority of species flowered each year at about the same time. There was no evidence of sub-annual or continuous regimes of reproductive phenology. There was no supra-annual carryover of seed-bearing fruit in the canopy of any species. The peak flowering periods were the mid to late dry season (July–August) and the transition between the dry season and the wet season (October–November). The two dominant trees–Eucalyptus miniata and E, tetrodonta– flowered during the dry season, thereby providing resources for some elements of the vertebrate fauna. Flowering and fruiting were uncommon at the end of the wet season (February/March), although two species that flower and fruit at this time (E. porrecta and Terminalia ferdinandianas may provide resources to consumers at a time when floral or fruit resources are otherwise scarce. Because the peak of reproductive activity takes place during the late dry season, fruit maturity and seed dispersal have occurred prior to the onset of the rainy season for most species, and germination and seedling establishment potentially may take effect in response to the first rains. Late dry season fires, which tend to be extensive and intense, are a potential threat to the floral and fruit reserves within these savannas.     

The Impact of Annual and Seasonal Rainfall Patterns on Growth and Phenology of Emergent Tree Species in Southeastern Amazonia,Brazil

Understanding tree growth in response to rainfall distribution is critical to predicting forest and species population responses to climate change. We investigated inter‐annual and seasonal variation in stem diameter by three emergent tree species in a seasonally dry tropical forest in southeast Pará, Brazil. Annual diameter growth rates by Swietenia macrophylla demonstrated strong positive correlation with annual rainfall totals during 1997–2009; Hymenaea courbaril growth rates demonstrated weak positive correlation, whereas Parkia pendula exhibited weak negative correlation. For both Swietenia and Hymenaea, annual diameter growth rates correlated positively and significantly with rainfall totals during the first 6 mo of the growing year (July to December). Vernier dendrometer bands monitored at 4‐wk intervals during 3–5 yr confirmed strong seasonal effects on stem diameter expansion. Individuals of all three species expanded in unison during wet season months and were static or even contracted during dry season months. Stems of the deciduous Swietenia contracted as crowns were shed during the early dry season, expanded slightly as new crowns were flushed, and then contracted further during 3–5 wk flowering periods in the late dry season by newly mature crowns. The three species’ physiographic distribution patterns at the study site may partially underlie observed differences in annual and seasonal growth. With most global circulation models predicting conditions becoming gradually drier in southeast Amazonia over the coming decades, species such as Swietenia that perform best on the ‘wet end’ of current conditions may experience reduced growth rates. However, population viability will not necessarily be threatened if life history and ecophysiological responses to changing conditions are compensatory.     

Do the phenology and functional stem attributes of woody species allow for the identification of functional groups in the semiarid region of Brazil?

The phenology of tree species in environments that are subject to strong climatic seasonality is mainly determined by water availability, which may vary as a function of wood density. The relationship among phenology, water potential, wood density and the capacity of water storage in the stem were determined for woody species of caatinga vegetation (dry forest) in the semiarid region of NE Brazil. Leaf flush and fall, flowering and fruiting events were recorded over a 31-month period, and the water potential was measured over a two-year period. These data were related to precipitation, water availability in the soil and photoperiod. Seven deciduous species exhibited low wood density (DLWD,?<0.5?g?cm^?3), high capacity of water storage in the stem (until 250?% of the dry weight) and high water potential during the year, as opposed to 15 deciduous species that showed high wood density (DHWD,?≥0.5?g?cm^?3). Leaf flush, flowering and the fruiting of DHWD species were related to precipitation, whereas these phenological events occurred at the end of the dry season and/or the beginning of the rainy season for DLWD species and were related to the photoperiod. The two evergreen species showed variations of water potential that were intermediate between those of DHWD and DLWD deciduous species, leaf flush during the dry season and flowering at the end of dry season. These results suggest the existence of three functional groups: evergreen species, DHWD deciduous species and DLWD deciduous species.     

Fauna community trends during early restoration of alluvial open forest/woodland ecosystems on former agricultural land

Vertebrate fauna was studied over 10 years following revegetation of a Eucalyptus tereticornis ecosystem on former agricultural land. We compared four vegetation types: remnant forest, plantings of a mix of native tree species on cleared land, natural regeneration of partially cleared land after livestock removal, and cleared pasture land with scattered paddock trees managed for livestock production. Pasture differed significantly from remnant in both bird and nonbird fauna. Although 10 years of ecosystem restoration is relatively short term in the restoration process, in this time bird assemblages in plantings and natural regeneration had diverged significantly from pasture, but still differed significantly from remnant. After 10 years, 70 and 66% of the total vertebrate species found in remnant had been recorded in plantings and natural regeneration, respectively. Although the fauna assemblages within plantings and natural regeneration were tracking toward those of remnant, significant differences in fauna between plantings and natural regeneration indicated community development along different restoration pathways. Because natural regeneration contained more mature trees (dbh > 30 cm), native shrub species, and coarse woody debris than plantings from the beginning of the study, these features possibly encouraged different fauna to the revegetation areas from the outset. The ability of plantings and natural regeneration to transition to the remnant state will be governed by a number of factors that were significant in the analyses, including shrub cover, herbaceous biomass, tree hollows, time since fire, and landscape condition. Both active and passive restoration produced significant change from the cleared state in the short term.