The dynamics of trade in live wildlife across the Guangxi border between China and Vietnam during 1993–1996 and its control strategies

A survey on trade in live wild animals was conducted along the Guangxi border between China and Vietnam during 1993–1996. The results showed that there were 55 species, which were underestimated, involved in the trade, including 15 species of mammals, 10 species of birds, 29 species of reptiles and 1 species of amphibian. Many of them were species listed on Appendices I and II of CITES and on China's protection list (known as ASSP). During the investigation, about 2.29–29.325 tons of wildlife per day were imported to China form Vietnam. Some species with a large volume of trade may be over-exploited. Sixty-three percent of middle–high quality restaurants in three border cities and Nanning in Guangxi sold wildlife foods. Twenty kinds of wild animals were eaten at the restaurants. Although numbers of species involved in the trade remained fairly stable over the survey period, numbers of species listed in Appendices I and II of CITES and the state protection list had declined. The scale of wildlife markets in border cities of Guangxi and consumption levels of wildlife in the restaurants had been reduced because border control measures were enforced on the trade by local governments of China. However, the prices of the 5 main species in wildlife markets were still going up. This suggested that demand for wildlife in Guangxi was strong and will facilitate the illegal trade. The key steps to control the illegal wildlife trade between the two countries should focus on (i)suppression of illegal wildlife markets and prohibition of the sale of wildlife food in restaurants consisting of species listed in the ASSP inventory; (ii) international cooperation in the control of the trade; (iii) tighter enforcement of CITES for both countries; (iv) control of invasion of exotic species and epidemics of disease in the trade in China; and (v) education for wildlife conservation in China.     

Animal origins of SARS coronavirus: possible links with the international trade in small carnivores

The search for animal host origins of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus has so far remained focused on wildlife markets, restaurants and farms within China. A significant proportion of this wildlife enters China through an expanding regional network of illegal, international wildlife trade. We present the case for extending the search for ancestral coronaviruses and their hosts across international borders into countries such as Vietnam and Lao People's Democratic Republic, where the same guilds of species are found on sale in similar wildlife markets or food outlets. The three species that have so far been implicated, a viverrid, a mustelid and a canid, are part of a large suite of small carnivores distributed across this region currently overexploited by this international wildlife trade. A major lesson from SARS is that the underlying roots of newly emergent zoonotic diseases may lie in the parallel biodiversity crisis of massive species loss as a result of overexploitation of wild animal populations and the destruction of their natural habitats by increasing human populations. To address these dual threats to the long-term future of biodiversity, including man, requires a less anthropocentric and more interdisciplinary approach to problems that require the combined research expertise of ecologists, conservation biologists, veterinarians, epidemiologists, virologists, as well as human health professionals.     

A Preliminary Investigation on the Status of the Wildlife Trade in Guangxi,China

1IntroductionWildlifetradeisamain~mpetustoutilizewildlife.Thechangeinspeciesandvolumein-volvedinthewildlifetrademayreflectconservationstatus,dynamicsandexploitedlevelofwildliferesources.Thestudyonwildlifetradeisthetheoriticalbasisonwhichproposalsastolimittradeonrareorendangeredspeciescanbemade,andwithwhichfuturemonitoringofthetradecanbecompared.Theresultalsocanbeusedtoevaluateconservationeffectsofprotectionmeasuresandlawsforbiodiversityconservation.Itisofgreatsignificanceinguid-ingsustainable…     

云南省2014—2017年收容救护野生动物调查

通过对2014-2017年云南省被收容救护野生动物的物种数量、来源、频次等的调查和分析,结果发现:(1)云南省收容救护的野生动物超过93科269种,共计21 784只;其中,外来物种超过35种,以鸟类的种类和数量最多;(2)收容救护动物主要来源于执法单位移交,共20 485只,占94%;(3)非法动物贸易市场和渠道、人兽冲突、违规经营、民众缺乏对动物习性的了解是动物被收容救护的主要原因。管理部门需要加大监管力度,加强执法,严厉打击野生动物非法贸易,建立健全野生动物及制品市场准入机制,加强野生动物科普宣教工作,减少民众误抓误捉、随意放生外来物种等行为,进一步完善提高野生动物保护工作。     

多学科视角下的野生动物消费需求和消费行为研究进展

全球持续扩张的野生动物消费需求和相关非法贸易是生物多样性保护的重要威胁之一。近期新冠肺炎疫情暴发, 野生动物贸易和食用的公共卫生安全风险也引起了社会各界的关注。本文从社会学、心理学、行为科学等多学科的视角分析和理解我国野生动物消费的需求动因, 提出科学的行为改变对策。从我国野生动物消费现状来看, 功能性、社会性和体验性等非生活必需性需求凸显, 并受复杂因素影响。基于对需求动因的理解, 运用合适的行为改变框架, 以及宣传教育、社会影响、法律规范和行为助推等多种行为改变方法, 通过科学系统的阶段和步骤, 可有效地影响和改变野生动物消费行为。行为改变对策的实施需在具体情境下加强合作, 重视多学科运用、多主体合作和多尺度考虑。     

新冠肺炎时期公众对野生动物消费和贸易意愿的调查

新冠肺炎疫情的暴发, 使得对野生动物的消费与贸易中的公共健康安全问题引起广泛关注。为了给相关的立法和政策制定提供参考, 我们通过网络对于全国及部分海外华人发放问卷进行了调查, 共收回74,040份有效问卷。根据问卷调查结果, 本文对普通公众对于野生动物消费和贸易立法意愿及影响因素进行了分析。研究结果包括: (1)公众对全面取缔野味餐馆和集市、禁止消费野味、禁止野生动物及其制品的买卖以及禁止野生动物商业性活体展演的立法动议持赞成态度的比例均超过90%; (2)现有野生动物消费群体经历新冠肺炎疫情后倾向于停止消费行为; (3)曾经消费野生动物或周围有人从事野生动物相关产业的群体相比其他人群更有可能不支持全面禁止对野生动物的消费和贸易。结果表明, 全国人民代表大会常务委员会禁食野生动物的决定和修改野生动物保护法的动议在受高等教育者和城镇居民中有良好的公众基础。     

Wildlife consumption and conservation awareness in China: a long way to go

An attitudinal survey on wildlife consumption and conservation awareness was conducted in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Kunming and Nanning of China recently. Comparison with the results from a similar survey we did in 2004, after 8 years, the proportion of respondents who had consumed wildlife was dropped slightly from 31.3 % down to 29.6 %. It showed that the rates of wildlife consumed as food and as ingredients for traditional medicines in Guangzhou and Nanning ranked in the top. The consumptions in these two cities were mostly driven by utilitarian motivation, and mainly for food. Meanwhile, the rate of consumers taking wildlife as food was declining significantly in Beijing after 8 years. The results also showed that 52.7 % agreed that wildlife should not be consumed, which was significantly increased comparison with the survey result of 42.7 % in 2004. In addition, respondents agreed that wildlife could be used significantly decline from 42.8 to 34.8 %. It’s indicated that wildlife conservation awareness was raised in China in the past years. We also founded that consumers with higher income and higher educational background were having higher wildlife consumption rate. It suggested that to strengthen the law enforcement and to promote the public awareness were keys to reduce wildlife consumption in China.     

海南省海口地区龟类市场贸易调查

2002～2004年,对海口地区龟类市场贸易进行了调查。在21个贸易市场共发现龟类23种2572只,其中淡水龟科17种,鳖科4种,陆龟科1种,鳄龟科1种;国外龟类12种,占种数的52％,中国和国外共有龟类11种,占种数的48％;在海南岛分布的龟类有7种,占种数的30％;在23种龟中,10种为濒危物种,1种为易危物种,11种为CITES（2003）附录Ⅱ物种。调查表明,市场上的国外龟类在种类和数量上占绝对优势,一些国家保护龟类也出现在贸易市场上。本文对海口地区龟类市场贸易现状进行了分析和讨论。     

我国网络平台本土兰科植物贸易状况

我国兰科植物物种丰富, 很多具有极高的药用和观赏价值。随着网络平台的迅速发展, 兰科植物的线上交易越来越普遍。为了解国内网络平台的本土兰科植物贸易情况, 本文利用PyCharm Community软件爬取网络交易信息和人工浏览收集的方法, 分析了淘宝网、拼多多和中兰网的兰科植物贸易情况。调查发现: 网络贸易的本土兰科植物共计84属339种(含3变种), 包含45个中国特有种, 兰属(Cymbidium)和石斛属(Dendrobium)是最大的贸易对象。其中, 仅以观赏用途作为卖点的兰科植物309种(91.1%), 仅以药用价值作为卖点的兰科植物5种(1.5%), 以双用途作为卖点的兰科植物25种(7.4%)。本次调查共记录到336种(99.1%)野生兰科植物销售信息, 并发现部分销售者刻意包装野生兰科植物的现象。大部分淘宝网和拼多多的兰科植物最大销售量对应的价位为10-49元, 其中拼多多的价格更低且集中, 位于15-35元的占57.5%。商品货源地较集中, 主要包括云南省、广东省、广西壮族自治区、浙江省、福建省和四川省。进一步对本次记录的兰科植物进行濒危等级统计后发现: 受威胁兰科植物188种(55.5%), 其中极危(Critically Endangered, CR) 23种(6.8%), 濒危(Endangered, EN) 85种(25.1%), 易危(Vulnerable, VU) 80种(23.6%)。为加强我国野生兰科植物多样性保护, 强烈建议各网络平台依据最新《国家重点保护野生植物名录》制定兰科植物商品信息发布规则, 重点监督货源地集中的地区, 同时加强对公众的宣传教育, 相关部门应利用网络平台加强兰科资源的信息交流, 共同保护野生兰科植物。     

The trade in bear parts from Myanmar: an illustration of the ineffectiveness of enforcement of international wildlife trade regulations

We assessed the effectiveness of national and international wildlife trade regulations in Asia by surveying four wildlife markets in Myanmar for bears and bear parts. Bears are protected in Myanmar and neighbouring countries, and are included in CITES Appendix I, precluding international trade. Three of the four wildlife markets were situated at the border with neighbouring countries (China and Thailand) whereas the fourth, situated in Myanmar’s interior, also catered to international markets. During seven checks (1999–2006) we recorded 1,200 bear parts, representing a minimum of 215 individual bears. Most items were from Asiatic black bears Ursus thibetanus but also sun bear Helarctos malayanus parts were offered for sale. There were significant temporal and spatial differences in what items were offered for sale. Prices were low (USD 4–40 per item) and the total monetary value of the items for sale was USD 6,500–9,500 (not including gall bladders). Carcasses, skulls, canines, paws, claws, whole skins, pieces of skin, gall bladders and derivates, were openly displayed, with vendors being frank about prices, origin, and potential buyers. Only in the interior were prices quoted in the local currency; at the other three markets currencies of the neighbouring countries were used. Legal (international) trade in bears or bear parts from Myanmar is virtually non-existent, and the observed trade in bear parts strongly indicates a serious lack of enforcement effort. International trade in bear parts from Myanmar is significant, and open, and we conclude that the enforcement of wildlife trade regulations, at least when they concerns bear species, have by and large failed.     

Wildlife Trade and Human Health in Lao PDR: An Assessment of the Zoonotic Disease Risk in Markets

Although the majority of emerging infectious diseases can be linked to wildlife sources, most pathogen spillover events to people could likely be avoided if transmission was better understood and practices adjusted to mitigate risk. Wildlife trade can facilitate zoonotic disease transmission and represents a threat to human health and economies in Asia, highlighted by the 2003 SARS coronavirus outbreak, where a Chinese wildlife market facilitated pathogen transmission. Additionally, wildlife trade poses a serious threat to biodiversity. Therefore, the combined impacts of Asian wildlife trade, sometimes termed bush meat trade, on public health and biodiversity need assessing. From 2010 to 2013, observational data were collected in Lao PDR from markets selling wildlife, including information on volume, form, species and price of wildlife; market biosafety and visitor origin. The potential for traded wildlife to host zoonotic diseases that pose a serious threat to human health was then evaluated at seven markets identified as having high volumes of trade. At the seven markets, during 21 observational surveys, 1,937 alive or fresh dead mammals (approximately 1,009 kg) were observed for sale, including mammals from 12 taxonomic families previously documented to be capable of hosting 36 zoonotic pathogens. In these seven markets, the combination of high wildlife volumes, high risk taxa for zoonoses and poor biosafety increases the potential for pathogen presence and transmission. To examine the potential conservation impact of trade in markets, we assessed the status of 33,752 animals observed during 375 visits to 93 markets, under the Lao PDR Wildlife and Aquatic Law. We observed 6,452 animals listed by Lao PDR as near extinct or threatened with extinction. The combined risks of wildlife trade in Lao PDR to human health and biodiversity highlight the need for a multi-sector approach to effectively protect public health, economic interests and biodiversity.     

A Review of Zoonotic Infection Risks Associated with the Wild Meat Trade in Malaysia

The overhunting of wildlife for food and commercial gain presents a major threat to biodiversity in tropical forests and poses health risks to humans from contact with wild animals. Using a recent survey of wildlife offered at wild meat markets in Malaysia as a basis, we review the literature to determine the potential zoonotic infection risks from hunting, butchering and consuming the species offered. We also determine which taxa potentially host the highest number of pathogens and discuss the significant disease risks from traded wildlife, considering how cultural practices influence zoonotic transmission. We identify 51 zoonotic pathogens (16 viruses, 19 bacteria and 16 parasites) potentially hosted by wildlife and describe the human health risks. The Suidae and the Cervidae families potentially host the highest number of pathogens. We conclude that there are substantial gaps in our knowledge of zoonotic pathogens and recommend performing microbial food safety risk assessments to assess the hazards of wild meat consumption. Overall, there may be considerable zoonotic risks to people involved in the hunting, butchering or consumption of wild meat in Southeast Asia, and these should be considered in public health strategies.     

以兽类为例探讨我国陆生野生动物疫病监管中面临的问题与对策

近年来, 新型冠状病毒、SARS病毒和鼠疫等新发和再发性动物源疫病多是由兽类及其媒介携带的病原生物直接或间接感染而引发的, 不仅对人类健康和生态系统平衡造成了重大威胁, 而且威胁全球公共卫生安全、粮食安全和生物安全。结合我国重要陆生兽类疫源疫病发生的新情况和新特点, 本文重点总结了我国以陆生野生及非野生兽类(家畜为主)为重点的24种重要人兽共患病的监管情况, 并对这些疫源疫病的监管空缺进行了分析。由于病原生物的种类多及其感染传播方式多样, 我国人间和动物间疫情呈现多发态势, 新发和再发疫病防控面临严峻挑战。从目前情况来看, 我国重要野生动物疫源疫病呈现为多部门、多层监管的局面。全球化贸易剧增、非法猎杀、非法交易、违法违规养殖、滥食野生动物陋习、检疫环节失察等导致了当前我国野生动物疫源疫病的传染源头和传播链错综复杂, 加剧了人类与野生动物所携带的病原接触、感染和传播的风险。极端气候或灾害事件频发以及对新发再发传染病的认知不足导致难以从源头做好疫病防控。针对上述问题, 本文提出了从源头加强基础研究和全链条监管来积极防范陆生野生动物疫病疫情的对策和建议。     

Road Development and the Geography of Hunting by an Amazonian Indigenous Group: Consequences for Wildlife Conservation

Protected areas are essential for conservation of wildlife populations. However, in the tropics there are two important factors that may interact to threaten this objective: 1) road development associated with large-scale resource extraction near or within protected areas; and 2) historical occupancy by traditional or indigenous groups that depend on wildlife for their survival. To manage wildlife populations in the tropics, it is critical to understand the effects of roads on the spatial extent of hunting and how wildlife is used. A geographical analysis can help us answer questions such as: How do roads affect spatial extent of hunting? How does market vicinity relate to local consumption and trade of bushmeat? How does vicinity to markets influence choice of game? A geographical analysis also can help evaluate the consequences of increased accessibility in landscapes that function as source-sink systems. We applied spatial analyses to evaluate the effects of increased landscape and market accessibility by road development on spatial extent of harvested areas and wildlife use by indigenous hunters. Our study was conducted in Yasuní Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador, which is impacted by road development for oil extraction, and inhabited by the Waorani indigenous group. Hunting activities were self-reported for 12–14 months and each kill was georeferenced. Presence of roads was associated with a two-fold increase of the extraction area. Rates of bushmeat extraction and trade were higher closer to markets than further away. Hunters located closer to markets concentrated their effort on large-bodied species. Our results clearly demonstrate that placing roads within protected areas can seriously reduce their capacity to sustain wildlife populations and potentially threaten livelihoods of indigenous groups who depend on these resources for their survival. Our results critically inform current policy debates regarding resource extraction and road building near or within protected areas.     

Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone: Threats and Opportunities for Conservation

This study used a quantitative market survey to examine the ecological importance of the medicinal plant trade in Sierra Leone and the existing trading systems, so that it could be determined (1) if trade has a negative impact on the species traded, and/or (2) if trade could be used to support conservation projects. We interviewed vendors in three major cities and two towns and carried out focus–group discussions among collectors at forest edge communities. In the markets, specimen samples were collected and identified. In several forests, observations were made on harvesting techniques and relative abundance. More than 40 species are traded in urban markets, nine of which are the most frequently traded. Some plants are transported great distances to reach the urban markets, especially Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich. and Garcinia kola Heckel. Certain species might not be sustainably harvested depending on the collector practices (e.g., ring debarking, tree felling), and this might threaten these species, especially Piper guineense Schumach. & Thonn. However, results also suggest that the trade of some species could be promoted as an alternative livelihood strategy for edge communities of forest reserves. In this latter case, special attention should be paid to sustainable harvesting techniques.     

The evolution of the endowment effect

People often value an item more when they own it than when it is available for purchase, and consequently are relatively reluctant to trade. This is the “endowment effect”, which has been widely documented in human populations and also in some non-human species. This paper develops a simple model in which it is adaptive to have a bias against trade, potentially explaining the basis of the endowment effect. The bias against trade arises from the strategic nature of trade in a moderately competitive environment: the interest of a potential trading partner in making the exchange is evidence that the decision maker already has the more valuable object. The model predicts that an endowment effect is promoted by large uncertainty about the fitness value of items, and also by conditions in which there are on average small gains to be had from trade. Because the model employs a simple bounded rationality heuristic for trade, it explains how the endowment effect could arise in species that lack theory of mind and related strategic reasoning abilities. The model also suggests an explanation for why endowment effects are so rarely observed in biological markets that exist between species. Because the trading classes have very different fitness functions, there is negligible competition across those classes. Consequently, there are substantial mutual gains to trade, so our model predicts there is unlikely to be adaptive pressure for an endowment effect.     

A preliminary survey of whale shark Rhincodon typus catch and trade in China: an emerging crisis

This study gives an account of spatial and temporal distribution of whale shark Rhincodon typus catch events in China on the basis of historical records and information obtained from interviews with fishing industry stakeholders. A total of 186 R. typus were recorded with key harvest areas identified as in Hainan and Zhejiang, and the peak catching seasons were May to June and September to October. Aspects of the R. typus trade are discussed, including products, markets and the process. The results suggest that R. typus is increasingly becoming a targeted resource in China as a consequence of fierce competition for large shark fins and an emerging local market for consumption of all body parts. Current obstacles and potential measures for sustainable exploitation and trade of R. typus are discussed.     

Hunting, use and conservation of birds in Northeast Brazil

Brazil has one of the highest avifauna diversities in the world, and many species are used by human populations in many different ways. Capturing wild birds for food, or to raise as pets, or for commercial purposes, together with the loss of habitat, have been the principal causes of population reductions among many species. The present work provides new information about the diversity of wild bird species used in Ceará State (Northeast Brazil) and the techniques used for capturing them, as well as the forces motivating this hunting, the commercial relationships involved, the maintenance of captive species, and the legal and conservation implications of the use of the regional avifauna. A total of 92 wild bird species belonging to 26 families were found to be used as food (39 spp.), for medicinal (3 spp.) and magic-religious (1 spp.) purposes, for commercial ends (46 spp.), or raised as pets (44 spp.), or killed to control their predation on domestic animals (5 spp.). Raising or selling birds is motivated by their singing and/or their natural beauty, with Thraupidae, Icteridae and Emberizidae being the principal families sought after for those purposes. The Family Columbidae has the greatest importance as a food source. Eleven traditional capture techniques (both active and passive) were identified. The commercial value of the birds varied depending on both intra- and inter-specific factors, and the trade in these animals involved both dealers who sold large numbers of individuals at low prices and specialists (“passarinheiros”) who sold just a few domesticated individuals of greater value. Our evaluations of transactions taking place in public markets indicated the probable over-exploitation of a number of species, and these were often imported from other states and countries. In addition to being illegal, the capture of wild birds can cause serious environmental problems that can only be addressed through public policies directed towards education, monitoring and control, alternative sources of income, wildlife management, and ecosystem conservation.     

陕西秦岭及大巴山地区的鸟类资源调查

近20多年的野外调查发现,陕西秦岭及大巴山地区的鸟类资源丰富,分布有475种鸟类,多为留鸟、夏候鸟和旅鸟。它们中有中国特有鸟类34种,国家Ⅰ级重点保护的鸟类9种,国家Ⅱ级重点保护的鸟类55种,还有28种鸟类被列入中国濒危动物红皮书及11种被列入世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)濒危物种红色名录中。目前因分布在自然保护区内而受到保护的鸟类有390种,占总种数的82.1%。保护区的存在有利于保护秦岭及大巴山地区的鸟类资源。