载脂蛋白A—I基因表达调控的研究进展

载脂蛋白Ａ－Ｉ是一种重要的血浆蛋白,其基因表达具有明显的组织特异性、种属特异性和发育阶段桃煨浴ＡｐｏＡ－Ｉ基因５’调控区的肝细胞特异性增强子等顺式作用元件同ＡＲＰ－１、ＨＮＦ－４、ＲＸＲａ等反式作用因子相作用,调控该基因的特异性表达。     

载脂蛋白A—I基因表达及调控

载脂蛋白Ａ－Ｉ是血浆中高密度脂蛋白的主要蛋白成份,十多年来其基因结构已清楚,并在染色体上得以定位。目前ＡｐｏＡ－Ｉ基因在原核,真核细胞以及转基因鼠中均已获表达,对于该基因的调控机理正在深入研究。本就以上几方面的进展加以综述。     

载脂蛋白B编辑催化多肽—1的研究进展

载脂蛋白Ｂ编辑催化多肽－１是催化ＡｐｏＢｍＲＮＡ编辑的酶复合物的主要催化成份,对它的研究有助于对ｍＲＮＡ编辑的理解。本文综述了近年来国外有关Ａｐｏｂｅｃ－１的最新研究进展,对Ａｐｏｂｅｃ－１蛋白 结构与编辑基因,功能与表达调控等作了较全面的介绍。     

糖尿病患者血清载脂蛋白分析

糖尿病能引起糖代谢紊乱,也有明显的脂代谢异常。我们自１９９２年６月～１９９３年３月测定了３２例糖尿病患者的载脂蛋白（Ａｐｅ）Ａ１、Ｂ以及Ａｐｏ—Ｂ：Ａｐｏ—Ａ１比值,以了解糖尿病载脂蛋白水平。     

胆固醇逆转运相关蛋白基因在骨骼肌的表达

构建载脂蛋白ＡＩ（ａｐｏＡＩ）、载脂蛋白Ｅ（ａｐｏＥ）和卵磷脂胆固醇酰基转移酶（ＬＣＡＴ）的病毒或非病毒载体,分别转染离体成肌细胞或直接注入小鼠骨骼肌,观察其表达程序及分泌人血等情况,探讨借用骨骼肌异源表达这些在胆固醇逆转运中起关键作用的重要候选基因,进而发展一种简易安全基因治疗方法的可能性。结果显示,质粒表达载体ｐＣＭＶａｐｏＥ３和重组腺病毒载体Ａｄ－ＲＳＶ－ａｐｏＡＩ在原代培养小鼠成肌细胞和成     

北京鸭Apo A—I溴化氰裂解片段的分离,纯化及其功能…

溴化氰可裂解北京鸭ａｐｏ Ａ－Ｉ为１１个肽段，通过测定纯化后各片段分子量玫Ｎ末端氨基酸序列确定片段３－１０在ａｐｏＡ－Ｉ分子中的位置，分别为６４－２０４，７４－２４０，６４－２０６，１－１３６，１－６３，１７１－２０６，２０７－２０４和１３７－１７０，并对上述片段功能进行研究，结果为：（１）这结片均可与脂质结合形成大小不同的脂质体，其大小与片段长短成正比。（２）Ａｐｏ Ａ－Ｉ溴化氰片段３－１０激活     

一种新的免疫—PCR系统的建立和应用研究

把ＰＣＲ技术作为指示系统引入免疫检测中,建立了免疫－ＰＣＲ技术。在本研究中,以ＰＥＩ作交联剂,首次成功地将特异性抗体直接与ＤＮＡ交联,构建了三种Ａｂ－ＤＮＡ基因探针,组成新的免疫－ＰＣＲ检测系统。此三种特异性Ａｂ－ＮＤＡ探针可用于检测三种相应抗原。检测ＨＳＡ抗原的最低含量可达１０＾－１８ｍｇ／ｍｌ,灵敏度比ＥＬＩＳＡ高１０＾６倍。     

脂蛋白（a）的研究进展──生物化学与分子生物学方面

脂蛋白（ａ）［Ｌｐ（ａ）］是一种与低密度脂蛋白类似的脂蛋白,其特殊处在于多含一种具明显多态性的糖蛋白──载脂蛋白（ａ）［Ａｐｏ（ａ）］。Ａｐｏ（ａ）与血浆纤溶酶原有很大同源性。Ｌｐ（ａ）由肝合成,其分解可能主要经非特异途径。Ａｐｏ（ａ）大小及血浆Ｌｐ（ａ）浓度主要由Ａｐｏ（ａ）基因决定。Ｌｐ（ａ）易沉积于血管壁,并可促进平滑肌细胞生长及抑制纤维蛋白溶解,这可能是其促动脉粥样硬化和血栓形成的机理所在。Ｌｐ（ａ）的生理功能尚不清楚。     

裸子植物中光敏色素PHY-PAS1 结构域的适应性进化

光敏色素是一类红光/远红光受体, 在植物种子萌发到成熟的整个生长发育过程中均起重要的调节作用。光敏色素PHYPAS1 结构域存在于光敏色素基因家族的所有成员中, 对调节发色团的光谱特性和光信号转导非常关键。光敏色素基因家族通过基因重复产生, 而基因重复可能与物种形成有关。PHYP基因是裸子植物光敏色素基因家族发生第1次重复后产生的, 并且以单拷贝形式存在。为了研究不同裸子植物PHYP基因编码蛋白的PHY-PAS1结构域在进化过程中是否受到相同的选择压力以及是否发生了适应性进化, 该研究利用分支模型、位点模型以及分支-位点模型对裸子植物31条PHYP基因序列编码蛋白的PHY-PAS1结构域所受到的选择压力进行了分析。结果表明, 在由PHY-PAS1结构域序列构建的系统树中, 多数分支处于强烈的负选择压力下 (w<1); 有14个分支处于正选择压力下 (w>1), 其中13个分支发生在属内种间; 与之相比, 在较为古老的谱系中相对缺少这种正选择压力。     

裸子植物中光敏色素PHY-PAS1结构域的适应性进化

光敏色素是一类红光／远红光受体,在植物种子萌发到成熟的整个生长发育过程中均起重要的调节作用。光敏色素PHY-PAS1结构域存在于光敏色素基因家族的所有成员中,对调节发色团的光谱特性和光信号转导非常关键。光敏色素基因家族通过基因重复产生,而基因重复可能与物种形成有关。PHYP基因是裸子植物光敏色素基因家族发生第1次重复后产生的,并且以单拷贝形式存在。为了研究不同裸子植物PHYP基因编码蛋白的PHY-PAS1结构域在进化过程中是否受到相同的选择压力以及是否发生了适应性进化,该研究利用分支模型、位点模型以及分支．位点模型对裸子植物31条PHYP基因序列编码蛋白的PHY-PAS1结构域所受到的选择压力进行了分析。结果表明,在由PHY-PAS1结构域序列构建的系统树中,多数分支处于强烈的负选择压力下（ω〈1）：有14个分支处于正选择压力下（ω〉1）,其中13个分支发生在属内种间;与之相比,在较为古老的谱系中相对缺少这种正选择压力。     

The phylogeny of human globin genes investigated by the maximum parsimony method

Gene phylogenetic trees were constructed by the maximum parsimony method for various sets of ninety six globin chain amino acid sequences spanning plant and animal kingdoms. The method, executed by several computer programs, constructed ancestor and descendant globin messengers on tree topologies which required the least number of nucleotide replacements to account for the evolution of the globins. The human myoglobin-hemoglobin divergence was traced to a gene duplication which occurred either in the first vertebrates or earlier yet in the common ancestor of chordates and annelids, the alpha-beta divergence to a gene duplication in the common ancestor of teleosts and tetrapods, the gamma divergence from typical beta chains to a gene duplication in basal therian mammals, and the delta separation from beta to a duplication in the basal catarrhine primates. Evidence was provided by the globin phylogenies for the hominoid affinities of the gibbon and the close phyletic relationship of the African apes to man. Over the period of teleos-tetrapod divergence the globin messengers evolved at an average rate of 18.5 nucleotide replacements per 100 codons per 10⁸ years, a faster rate than most previous estimates. Very fast and very slow rates were encountered in different globin lineages and at different stages of descent, reducing the effectiveness of globins as molecular clocks. Rates increased with gene duplication and decreased after selection discovered useful specializations in the products of genes which had previously been freer to accept mutations. The early eutherian radiation was characterized by rapid rates of globin evolution, but the later hominoid radiation by extremely slow rates. This pattern was related to more complicated grades of internal organization evolving in human ancestors. The types of nucleotide replacements in the globin messengers over the long course of globin evolution did not seem indicative of any special mutational mechanisms.     

On the structural similarity of ApoA-I and ApoA-II of human high density lipoproteins.

The possible evolutionary origin of apolipoproteins was studied by comparing the primary structures of different plasma apolipoproteins and other phospholipid-binding proteins. Apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) and apolipoprotein A-II (ApoA-II) of human high density lipoprotein (HDL) are related. The resemblance of these two HDL apolipoproteins are apparently restricted to the carboxyl terminal regions suggesting that these portions of the molecules are derived from the same ancestor. The homologous carboxyl terminal segments may be involved in the regulation of HDL metabolism or in the interaction with phospholipids.     

Isolation and partial characterization of lipoprotein A-II (LP-A-II) particles of human plasma.

High density lipoproteins (HDL) consist of a mixture of chemically and functionally distinct families of particles defined by their characteristic apolipoprotein (Apo) composition. The two major lipoprotein families are lipoprotein A-I (LP-A-I) and lipoprotein A-I:A-II (LP-A-I:A-II). This study describes the isolation of a third minor HDL family of particles referred to as lipoprotein A-II (LP-A-II) because it lacks ApoA-I and contains ApoA-II as its main or sole apolipoprotein constituent. Because ApoA-II is an integral protein constituent of three distinct lipoprotein families (LP-A-I:A-II, LP-A-II: B:C:D:E and LP-A-II), LP-A-II particles were isolated from whole plasma by sequential immunoaffinity chromatography on immunosorbers with antisera to ApoA-II, ApoB and ApoA-I, respectively. In normolipidemic subjects, the concentration of LP-A-II particles, based on ApoA-II content, is 4-18 mg/dl accounting for 5-20% of the total ApoA-II not associated with ApoB-containing lipoproteins. The lipid composition of LP-A-II particles is characterized by low percentage of triglycerides and cholesterol esters and a high percentage of phospholipids in comparison with lipid composition of LP-A-I and LP-A-II: A-II. The major part of LP-A-II particles contain ApoA-II as the sole apolipoprotein constituent; however, small subsets of LP-A-II particles may also contain ApoD and other minor apolipoproteins. The lipid/protein ratio of LP-A-II is higher than those of LP-A-I and LP-A-I:A-II. In homozygous ApoA-I and ApoA-I/ApoC-III deficiencies, LP-A-II particles are the only ApoA-containing high density lipoprotein with levels found to be within the same range (7-13 mg/dl) as those of normolipidemic subjects. However, in contrast to normal LP-A-II, their lipid composition is characterized by higher percentages of triglycerides and cholesterol esters and a lower percentage of phospholipids and their apolipoprotein composition by the presence of ApoC-peptides and ApoE in addition to ApoA-II and ApoD. These results show that LP-A-II particles are a minor HDL family and suggest that, in the absence of ApoA-I-containing lipoproteins, they become an efficient acceptor/donor of ApoC-peptides and ApoE required for a normal metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Their other possible functional roles in lipid transport remain to be established in future experiments.     

Concerted evolution of the immunoglobulin VH gene family

With the aim of understanding the concerted evolution of the immunoglobulin VH multigene family, a phylogenetic tree for the DNA sequences of 16 mouse and five human germ line genes was constructed. This tree indicates that all genes in this family have undergone substantial evolutionary divergence. The most closely related genes so far identified in the mouse genome seem to have diverged about 6 million years (MY) ago, whereas the most distantly related genes diverged about 300 MY ago. This suggests that gene duplication caused by unequal crossing-over or gene conversion occurs very slowly in this gene family. The rate of occurrence of gene duplication in the VH gene family has been estimated to be 5 x 10(-7) per gene per year, which seems to be at least about 100 times lower than that for the rRNA gene family. This low rate of concerted evolution in the VH gene family helps retain intergenic genetic variability that in turn contributes to antibody diversity. Because of accumulation of destructive mutations, however, about one-third of the mouse and human VH genes seem to have become nonfunctional. Many of these pseudogenes have apparently originated recently, but some of them seem to have existed in the genome for more than 10 MY. The rate of nucleotide substitution for the complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) is as high as that of pseudogenes. This suggests that there is virtually no purifying selection operating in the CDRs and that germ line mutations are effectively used for generating antibody diversity.      

Molecular variation and evolution of the tyrosine kinase domains of insulin receptor <Emphasis Type="Italic">IRa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">IRb</Emphasis> genes in Cyprinidae

The insulin receptor (IR) gene plays an important role in regulating cell growth, differentiation and development. In the present study, DNA sequences of insulin receptor genes, IRa and IRb, were amplified and sequenced from 37 representative species of the Cyprinidae and from five outgroup species from non-cyprinid Cypriniformes. Based on coding sequences (CDS) of tyrosine kinase regions of IRa and IRb, molecular evolution and phylogenetic relationships were analyzed to better understand the characteristics of IR gene divergence in the family Cyprinidae. IRa and IRb were clustered into one lineage in the gene tree of the IR gene family, reconstructed using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA). IRa and IRb have evolved into distinct genes after IR gene duplication in Cyprinidae. For each gene, molecular evolution analyses showed that there was no significant difference among different groups in the reconstructed maximum parsimony (MP) tree of Cyprinidae; IRa and IRb have been subjected to similar evolutionary pressure among different lineages. Although the amino acid sequences of IRa and IRb tyrosine kinase regions were highly conserved, our analyses showed that there were clear sequence variations between the tyrosine kinase regions of IRa and IRb proteins. This indicates that IRa and IRb proteins might play different roles in the insulin signaling pathway.     

Gene duplication,genome duplication,and the functional diversification of vertebrate globins

The functional diversification of the vertebrate globin gene superfamily provides an especially vivid illustration of the role of gene duplication and whole-genome duplication in promoting evolutionary innovation. For example, key globin proteins that evolved specialized functions in various aspects of oxidative metabolism and oxygen signaling pathways (hemoglobin [Hb], myoglobin [Mb], and cytoglobin [Cygb]) trace their origins to two whole-genome duplication events in the stem lineage of vertebrates. The retention of the proto-Hb and Mb genes in the ancestor of jawed vertebrates permitted a physiological division of labor between the oxygen-carrier function of Hb and the oxygen-storage function of Mb. In the Hb gene lineage, a subsequent tandem gene duplication gave rise to the proto α- and β-globin genes, which permitted the formation of multimeric Hbs composed of unlike subunits (α₂β₂). The evolution of this heteromeric quaternary structure was central to the emergence of Hb as a specialized oxygen-transport protein because it provided a mechanism for cooperative oxygen-binding and allosteric regulatory control. Subsequent rounds of duplication and divergence have produced diverse repertoires of α- and β-like globin genes that are ontogenetically regulated such that functionally distinct Hb isoforms are expressed during different stages of prenatal development and postnatal life. In the ancestor of jawless fishes, the proto Mb and Hb genes appear to have been secondarily lost, and the Cygb homolog evolved a specialized respiratory function in blood-oxygen transport. Phylogenetic and comparative genomic analyses of the vertebrate globin gene superfamily have revealed numerous instances in which paralogous globins have convergently evolved similar expression patterns and/or similar functional specializations in different organismal lineages.     

Evolution of 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL) gene and divergence of Larix (Pinaceae)

The evolutionary dynamics of the 4CL gene encoding 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase was investigated in the genus Larix (Pinaceae) by comparing copy number, GC content and codon usage, sequence divergence, and phylogenetic analysis. All 4CL clones of Larix formed a strongly supported monophyletic group, in which two robust clades (4clA and 4clB) derived from an ancient gene duplication event in the common ancestor of Larix were identified. Further gene duplication in the 4clA clade gave rise to two subclades 4clA(1) and 4clA(2). Frequent duplication/deletion appears to be a common evolutionary phenomenon in the 4CL gene family and paralogous genes differ greatly in their evolution rate. The existence of L. speciosa in subclades 4clA(1) and 4clA(2) suggests that this species may represent a primitive form of Larix or the closest relative of the common ancestor of the Eurasian Sect. Multiserialis. In addition, cpDNA and nrDNA ITS analyses support the hypothesis of an early separation of Larix into a North American and a Eurasian clade, which is congruent with the results of previous allozyme and very recent AFLP analyses. The unexpected close relationship between North American larches and the short-bracted species L. gmelinii in East Asia, based on the 4CL gene tree, may stem from lineage sorting.     

High molecular weight adiponectin reduces apolipoprotein B and E release in human hepatocytes

Low circulating levels of high molecular weight adiponectin (HMW-Apm) have been linked to dyslipidaemia and systemic HMW-Apm negatively correlates with very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), apolipoprotein B (ApoB), and ApoE and is positively associated with ApoA-I. Therefore, it was investigated whether HMW-Apm alters the hepatic synthesis of ApoB, ApoE, and ApoA-I or the activity of the hepatic ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), as the main determinant of plasma HDL. HMW-Apm reduces hepatic ApoB and ApoE release whereas ABCA1 protein, activity and ApoA-I were not altered. Global gene expression analysis revealed that hepatic nuclear factor 4-alpha (HNF4-alpha) and HNF4-alpha regulated genes like ApoB are downregulated by HMW-Apm and this was confirmed at the mRNA and protein level. Therefore it is concluded that HMW-adiponectin may ameliorate dyslipidaemia by reducing the hepatic release of ApoB and ApoE, whereas ABCA1 function and ApoA-I secretion are not influenced.     

Evolution of the lipocalin family as inferred from a protein sequence phylogeny

The lipocalins constitute a family of proteins that have been found in eubacteria and a variety of eukaryotic cells, where they play diverse physiological roles. It is the primary goal of this review to examine the patterns of change followed by lipocalins through their complex history, in order to stimulate scientists in the field to experimentally contrast our phylogeny-derived hypotheses. We reexamine our previous work on lipocalin phylogeny and update the phylogenetic analysis of the family. Lipocalins separate into 14 monophyletic clades, some of which are grouped in well supported superclades. The lipocalin tree was rooted with the bacterial lipocalin genes under the assumption that they have evolved from a single common ancestor with the metazoan lipocalins, and not by horizontal transfer. The topology of the rooted tree and the species distribution of lipocalins suggest that the newly arising lipocalins show a higher rate of amino acid sequence divergence, a higher rate of gene duplication, and their internal pocket has evolved towards binding smaller hydrophobic ligands with more efficiency.     

Origins and divergence times of mammalian class II MHC gene clusters

The class I and II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes are apparently subject to evolution by a birth-and-death process. The rate of gene turnover is much slower in the latter genes than in the former. In placental mammals, the class II region can be subdivided into different orthologous subregions or gene clusters (DR, DQ, DO, and DN), but the origins and evolutionary relationships of these gene clusters are not well established. Here we report the results of our study of the times of origin and evolutionary relationships of these gene clusters in mammals. Our analysis suggests that both class II alpha-chain and beta-chain gene clusters are shared by placental mammals and marsupials, but the gene clusters from nonmammalian species are paralogous to mammalian gene clusters. We estimated the times of divergence between gene clusters in placental mammals using the linearized tree and distance regression methods. Our results indicate that most gene clusters originated 170-200 million years (MY) ago, but that DO beta-chain genes diverged from the other beta-chain gene clusters approximately 210-260 MY ago. The phylogenetic trees for the alpha- and beta-chain genes were not congruent, suggesting that the evolutionary history of the class II gene clusters is more complex than previously thought.