Dam1复合体在动粒-微管互作中的作用

细胞有丝分裂时动粒和纺锤体之间的相互作用对保证染色体分离的准确性至关重要,错误连接在前中期或中期时需要被修正。染色体要保持正确的连接直到后期纺锤丝将它们拉向两极。在对S.cerevisiae和S.pombe的研究中,非马达微管蛋白Dam1复合体对保持这样的连接起到了重要作用。本文主要介绍了有关Dam1复合体功能的一些关键性试验并且讨论了在酵母和其它有机体中它对于动粒-微管连接的意义。     

γ-微管蛋白研究进展

概述了近年来对γ-微管蛋白复合体结构、分子机制以及功能的研究进展.γ-微管蛋白是真核生物体内一种重要的保守性功能蛋白,以γ-微管蛋白小复合体和γ-微管蛋白环式复合体两种形式存在.通过γ-微管蛋白复合体结合蛋白定位于微管组织中心,参与微管的晶核起始以及有丝分裂纺锤体的组装等细胞功能.     

生物体内的γ-微管蛋白

γ-微管蛋白在真核生物体内以γ-微管蛋白环式复合体和γ-微管蛋白小复合体两种形式存在.γ-微管蛋白在真核生物体内的主要功能是参与微管晶核形成、有丝分裂纺锤体的形成以及细胞周期调控等.该文重点介绍植物体内的γ-微管蛋白所行使的功能.     

动粒蛋白CENP-K和CENP-H可形成异源超螺旋复合体

动粒（kinetochore）是位于纺锤体主缢痕处表层的特化结构.它通过与纺锤体微管的结合,在有丝分裂期拉动染色体向两极运动,同时具有机械力产生和与中期检验点有关的功能,是细胞中机械强度最高的结构之一.动粒由一个很大的复杂的蛋白网络组成,目前了解较清楚的核心蛋白网络是KMN网络（K,KNL1;M,Mis12复合物;N,NDC80复合物）和CCAN网络（常驻性着丝粒相关网络,constitutive centromere-associated network）,但对其蛋白组分之间相互作用的分子机制仍然了解很少.本研究采用串联亲和纯化（TAP）技术在稳定表达TAP-CENP-K的HEK293细胞中寻找CENP-K的稳定蛋白复合体,结果表明CENP-K和CENP-H形成强稳定的（耐受750mmol/L盐浓度）、比例接近11的蛋白复合体.经过预测,CENP-K与CENP-H都是超螺旋（coiled-coil）蛋白.CENP-K与CENP-H片段进行的体外Pull-down实验也证明了两者的N端片段之间以及C端片段之间分别存在直接的相互作用,并且C端片段之间的相互作用更明显.综上所述,CENP-H与CENP-K之间的强相互作用可能是通过形成异源超螺旋复合体实现的,可能在介导动粒与微管连接中起到重要的作用。     

染色体动粒与细胞有丝分裂

染色体动粒与细胞有丝分裂杨新林,王永潮（北京师范大学生物系细胞室,北京１００８７５）关键词动粒,有丝分裂真核细胞由间期进入有丝分裂期时伴随着一系列事件的发生,其中最显著的变化之一是有丝分裂纺锤体的形成。有丝分裂纺锤体至少由两类微管组成：一类是星状微管...     

.用酵母双杂交系统筛选CENP-E相互作用蛋白

纺锤体检验点(spindle checkpoint)是一个重要的细胞分裂生化调节通路, 可监督染色体正确分离和传代．着丝粒相关蛋白E (centromere-associated protein E, CENP-E)是一个分子量为312 kD的微管马达驱动蛋白,可以衔接纺锤体微管与动点并参与纺锤体检验点调控．为研究CENP-E的作用机理,以其动点结合区域为诱饵蛋白,用酵母双杂交技术从人HeLa细胞 cDNA 文库中筛选出了Nuf2蛋白．体外的pull-down实验和体内的免疫共沉淀实验表明, Nuf2蛋白通过其卷曲螺旋(coiled-coil) 功能域特异结合CENP-E的 C 末端区域,间接免疫荧光显示Nuf2与CENP-E共定位于细胞有丝分裂期染色体的动点．由此推论, CENP-E 通过Nuf2的直接作用参与构筑动点-微管界面,进而参与细胞有丝分裂纺锤体检验点信号转导通路,为染色体正确分离发挥调控作用．     

着丝粒核小体结构研究进展

着丝粒是构成真核生物染色体的必需元件。在细胞有丝分裂或减数分裂时,微管通过动粒与染色体着丝粒连接,参与细胞分裂的染色体分离与分配过程,使染色体平均分配到子细胞中。构成着丝粒的基本单位是着丝粒特异的核小体,与常规核小体不同的是着丝粒核小体中的组蛋白H3被其变种——着丝粒组蛋白H3所替换。最近几年,着丝粒核小体的结构成为细胞生物学研究的热点之一。该文综述了最近在多种真核生物研究中,通过体外和体内实验,提出的着丝粒核小体结构的八聚体、六聚体、同型四聚体以及半八聚体模型,并对着丝粒核小体结构的动态模型与功能的关系进行了探讨。     

青岛文昌鱼卵卵黄粒内的一种亚微结构

在文昌鱼卵及胚胎发育过程中,卵黄粒内存在一种结构,形态上有7—9个亚单位排列呈环的管,类似“微管”,其直径为500—700(?),具“负染色”性(醋酸铀和柠檬酸铅染色)。推测其成分可能为糖-蛋白和脂蛋白及中性脂肪的复合体;其功能可能与建成细胞成膜物质有关。     

纤毛病相关蛋白CEP43和CCDC13在艾美游仆虫中的细胞与亚细胞定位北大核心CSCD

艾美游仆虫(Euplotes amieti)含有几乎所有已知的纤毛病基因,但绝大多数基因及其表达产物的细胞定位和功能未知。为明确中心粒蛋白43(CEP43)和卷曲螺旋域蛋白13(CCDC13)在艾美游仆虫中的细胞以及亚细胞定位,本研究采用免疫荧光和免疫电镜技术对其进行显微与超微结构观察。免疫荧光结果显示,CEP43主要定位于艾美游仆虫的细胞核、腹面纤毛器(口围带、尾棘毛、额腹横棘毛)的基体及其附属微管,CCDC13主要定位于腹面纤毛器杆部和基体以及银线系统,附属微管及大核未见其定位。CEP43与γ-微管蛋白定位相同,CCDC13与γ-微管蛋白仅在腹面定位相同。2种蛋白在免疫电镜下显示与荧光标记定位相同,而且CCDC13在额腹棘毛基部的胶体金数量远多于CEP43。结合已有研究推测,纤毛形成后多余的CEP43受γ-微管蛋白复合体调控且被募集于细胞核,CCDC13参与形成银线系统,但为增加生长期艾美游仆虫的微管再生能力,附属微管结构不需要CCDC13的参与。本结果为进一步研究上述蛋白在腹毛类纤毛虫中调节和维持皮层微管类细胞骨架的装配和稳定性中的作用和机制提供资料。     

微管成核的研究进展

微管成核是指微管蛋白(tubulin)分子相互作用形成微管组织“核心”的过程,它是微管形成的初始阶段。在一定条件下,微管蛋白溶液中可以发生微管成核现象。γ微管蛋白(γ-tubulin)或多种γ微管蛋白复合体的存在能够加速这一过程。在体内,一般是由γ-TuRC(γ-tubulin ring complex)启动微管的装配。近年来研究发现即使没有γ微管蛋白,机体仍然能够利用某种机制组织微管成核。     

Looping in on Ndc80 – How does a protein loop at the kinetochore control chromosome segregation?

Segregation of chromosomes during mitosis requires the interaction of dynamic microtubules with the kinetochore, a large protein structure established on the centromere region of sister chromatids. The core microtubule‐binding activity of the kinetochore resides in the KMN network, an outer kinetochore complex. As part of the KMN network, the Ndc80 complex, which is composed of Ndc80, Nuf2, Spc24, and Spc25, is able to bind directly to microtubules and has the ability to track with depolymerizing microtubules to produce chromosome movement. The Ndc80 complex binds directly to microtubules through a calponin homology domain and an unstructured tail in the N terminus of the Ndc80 protein. A recent flurry of papers has highlighted the importance of an internal loop region in Ndc80 in establishing end‐on attachment to microtubules. Here I discuss these recent findings that suggest that the Ndc80 internal loop functions as a binding site for proteins required for kinetochore‐microtubule interactions.     

Architecture and flexibility of the yeast Ndc80 kinetochore complex

Kinetochores mediate microtubule-chromosome attachment and ensure accurate segregation of sister chromatids. The highly conserved Ndc80 kinetochore complex makes direct contacts with the microtubule and is essential for spindle checkpoint signaling. It contains a long coiled-coil region with globular domains at each end involved in kinetochore localization and microtubule binding, respectively. We have directly visualized the architecture of the yeast Ndc80 complex and found a dramatic kink within the 560-Å coiled-coil rod located about 160 Å from the larger globular head. Comparison of our electron microscopy images to the structure of the human Ndc80 complex allowed us to position the kink proximal to the microtubule-binding end and to define the conformational range of the complex. The position of the kink coincides with a coiled-coil breaking region conserved across eukaryotes. We hypothesize that the kink in Ndc80 is essential for correct kinetochore geometry and could be part of a tension-sensing mechanism at the kinetochore.     

Aurora B switches relative strength of kinetochore–microtubule attachment modes for error correction

To establish chromosome biorientation, aberrant kinetochore–microtubule interaction must be resolved (error correction) by Aurora B kinase. Aurora B differentially regulates kinetochore attachment to the microtubule plus end and its lateral side (end-on and lateral attachment, respectively). However, it is still unclear how kinetochore–microtubule interactions are exchanged during error correction. Here, we reconstituted the budding yeast kinetochore–microtubule interface in vitro by attaching the Ndc80 complexes to nanobeads. These Ndc80C nanobeads recapitulated in vitro the lateral and end-on attachments of authentic kinetochores on dynamic microtubules loaded with the Dam1 complex. This in vitro assay enabled the direct comparison of lateral and end-on attachment strength and showed that Dam1 phosphorylation by Aurora B makes the end-on attachment weaker than the lateral attachment. Similar reconstitutions with purified kinetochore particles were used for comparison. We suggest the Dam1 phosphorylation weakens interaction with the Ndc80 complex, disrupts the end-on attachment, and promotes the exchange to a new lateral attachment, leading to error correction.     

Sumoylation of the budding yeast kinetochore protein Ndc10 is required for Ndc10 spindle localization and regulation of anaphase spindle elongation

Posttranslational modification by the ubiquitin-like protein SUMO (small ubiquitin-like modifier) is emerging as an important regulator in many cellular processes, including genome integrity. In this study, we show that the kinetochore proteins Ndc10, Bir1, Ndc80, and Cep3, which mediate the attachment of chromosomes to spindle microtubules, are sumoylated substrates in budding yeast. Furthermore, we show that Ndc10, Bir1, and Cep3 but not Ndc80 are desumoylated upon exposure to nocodazole, highlighting the possibility of distinct roles for sumoylation in modulating kinetochore protein function and of a potential link between the sumoylation of kinetochore proteins and mitotic checkpoint function. We find that lysine to arginine mutations that eliminate the sumoylation of Ndc10 cause chromosome instability, mislocalization of Ndc10 from the mitotic spindle, abnormal anaphase spindles, and a loss of Bir1 sumoylation. These data suggest that sumoylation of Ndc10 and other kinetochore proteins play a critical role during the mitotic process.     

Ndc80 Loop as a protein-protein interaction motif

Our understanding of the structure and function of kinetochores has advanced dramatically over the past 10 years, yet how the plus end of spindle microtubules interacts with the kinetochore and establishes amphitelic attachment for proper sister chromatid segregation remains unresolved. However, several recent reports from different organisms have shed new light on this issue. A key player in microtubule-kinetochore interaction is the conserved Ndc80 outer kinetochore complex. In both yeast and human cells in particular, a ubiquitous internal ‘loop’ found in the Ndc80 molecule interrupting its C-terminal coiled-coil domain plays critical roles in protein-protein interaction, by recruiting microtubule-binding proteins to ensure proper kinetochore-microtubule attachment. In this commentary, we summarise the recent progress made and discuss the evolutionary significance of this loop’s role in microtubule dynamics at the kinetochore for accurate chromosome segregation.     

Microtubule binding by KNL-1 contributes to spindle checkpoint silencing at the kinetochore

Accurate chromosome segregation requires coordination between microtubule attachment and spindle checkpoint signaling at the kinetochore. The kinetochore-localized KMN (KNL-1/Mis12 complex/Ndc80 complex) network, which mediates microtubule attachment and scaffolds checkpoint signaling, harbors two distinct microtubule-binding activities: the load-bearing activity of the Ndc80 complex and a less well-understood activity in KNL-1. In this paper, we show that KNL-1 microtubule-binding and -bundling activity resides in its extreme N terminus. Selective perturbation of KNL-1 microtubule binding in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos revealed that this activity is dispensable for both load-bearing attachment formation and checkpoint activation but plays a role in checkpoint silencing at the kinetochore. Perturbation of both microtubule binding and protein phosphatase 1 docking at the KNL-1 N terminus additively affected checkpoint silencing, indicating that, despite their proximity in KNL-1, these two activities make independent contributions. We propose that microtubule binding by KNL-1 functions in checkpoint silencing by sensing microtubules attached to kinetochores and relaying their presence to eliminate generation of the checkpoint signal.     

Spindle assembly checkpoint proteins are positioned close to core microtubule attachment sites at kinetochores

Spindle assembly checkpoint proteins have been thought to reside in the peripheral corona region of the kinetochore, distal to microtubule attachment sites at the outer plate. However, recent biochemical evidence indicates that checkpoint proteins are closely linked to the core kinetochore microtubule attachment site comprised of the Knl1–Mis12–Ndc80 (KMN) complexes/KMN network. In this paper, we show that the Knl1–Zwint1 complex is required to recruit the Rod–Zwilch–Zw10 (RZZ) and Mad1–Mad2 complexes to the outer kinetochore. Consistent with this, nanometer-scale mapping indicates that RZZ, Mad1–Mad2, and the C terminus of the dynein recruitment factor Spindly are closely juxtaposed with the KMN network in metaphase cells when their dissociation is blocked and the checkpoint is active. In contrast, the N terminus of Spindly is ∼75 nm outside the calponin homology domain of the Ndc80 complex. These results reveal how checkpoint proteins are integrated within the substructure of the kinetochore and will aid in understanding the coordination of microtubule attachment and checkpoint signaling during chromosome segregation.     

Binding of the essential Saccharomyces cerevisiae kinetochore protein Ndc10p to CDEII

Chromosome segregation at mitosis depends critically on the accurate assembly of kinetochores and their stable attachment to microtubules. Analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae kinetochores has shown that they are complex structures containing >/=50 protein components. Many of these yeast proteins have orthologs in animal cells, suggesting that key aspects of kinetochore structure have been conserved through evolution, despite the remarkable differences between the 125-base pair centromeres of budding yeast and the Mb centromeres of animal cells. We describe here an analysis of S. cerevisiae Ndc10p, one of the four protein components of the CBF3 complex. CBF3 binds to the CDEIII element of centromeric DNA and initiates kinetochore assembly. Whereas CDEIII binding by Ndc10p requires the other components of CBF3, Ndc10p can bind on its own to CDEII, a region of centromeric DNA with no known binding partners. Ndc10p-CDEII binding involves a dispersed set of sequence-selective and -nonselective contacts over approximately 80 base pairs of DNA, suggesting formation of a multimeric structure. CDEII-like sites, active in Ndc10p binding, are also present along chromosome arms. We propose that a polymeric Ndc10p complex formed on CDEII and CDEIII DNA is the foundation for recruiting microtubule attachment proteins to kinetochores. A similar type of polymeric structure on chromosome arms may mediate other chromosome-spindle interactions.     

Recruitment of the human Cdt1 replication licensing protein by the loop domain of Hec1 is required for stable kinetochore-microtubule attachment

Cdt1, a protein critical for replication origin licensing in G1 phase, is degraded during S phase but re-accumulates in G2 phase. We now demonstrate that human Cdt1 has a separable essential mitotic function. Cdt1 localizes to kinetochores during mitosis through interaction with the Hec1 component of the Ndc80 complex. G2-specific depletion of Cdt1 arrests cells in late prometaphase owing to abnormally unstable kinetochore-microtubule (kMT) attachments and Mad1-dependent spindle-assembly-checkpoint activity. Cdt1 binds a unique loop extending from the rod domain of Hec1 that we show is also required for kMT attachment. Mutation of the loop domain prevents Cdt1 kinetochore localization and arrests cells in prometaphase. Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy indicates that Cdt1 binding to the Hec1 loop domain promotes a microtubule-dependent conformational change in the Ndc80 complex in vivo. These results support the conclusion that Cdt1 binding to Hec1 is essential for an extended Ndc80 configuration and stable kMT attachment.     

The conserved KMN network constitutes the core microtubule-binding site of the kinetochore

The microtubule-binding interface of the kinetochore is of central importance in chromosome segregation. Although kinetochore components that stabilize, translocate on, and affect the polymerization state of microtubules have been identified, none have proven essential for kinetochore-microtubule interactions. Here, we examined the conserved KNL-1/Mis12 complex/Ndc80 complex (KMN) network, which is essential for kinetochore-microtubule interactions in vivo. We identified two distinct microtubule-binding activities within the KMN network: one associated with the Ndc80/Nuf2 subunits of the Ndc80 complex, and a second in KNL-1. Formation of the complete KMN network, which additionally requires the Mis12 complex and the Spc24/Spc25 subunits of the Ndc80 complex, synergistically enhances microtubule-binding activity. Phosphorylation by Aurora B, which corrects improper kinetochore-microtubule connections in vivo, reduces the affinity of the Ndc80 complex for microtubules in vitro. Based on these findings, we propose that the conserved KMN network constitutes the core microtubule-binding site of the kinetochore.