RBM5 and p53 expression after rat spinal cord injury: Implications for neuronal apoptosis

RBM5 (RNA-binding motif protein 5), a nuclear RNA binding protein, is known to trigger apoptosis and induce cell cycle arrest by regulating the activity of the tumor suppressor protein p53. However, its expression and function in spinal cord injury (SCI) are still unknown. To investigate whether RBM5 is involved in central nervous system injury and repair, we performed an acute SCI model in adult rats in this study. Our results showed RBM5 was unregulated significantly after SCI, which was accompanied with an increase in the levels of apoptotic proteins such as p53, Bax, and active caspase-3. Immunofluorescent labeling also showed that traumatic SCI induced RBM5 location changes and co-localization with active caspase-3 in neurons. To further probe the role of RBM5, a neuronal cell line PC12 was employed to establish an apoptotic model. Knockdown of RBM5 apparently decreased the level of p53 as well as active caspase-3, demonstrating its pro-apoptotic role in neurons by regulating expressions of p53 and caspase-3. Taken together, our findings indicate that RBM5 promotes neuronal apoptosis through modulating p53 signaling pathway following SCI.     

RNA-binding Motif Protein 4 Translocates to Cytoplasmic Granules and Suppresses Translation via Argonaute2 during Muscle Cell Differentiation

The RNA-binding motif protein 4 (RBM4) plays multiple roles in mRNA metabolism, including translation control. RBM4 suppresses cap-dependent translation but activates internal ribosome entry site-mediated translation. Because of its high expression level in muscle and heart, we investigated the function of RBM4 in myoblast cells. Here, we demonstrate that RBM4 is phosphorylated and translocates to the cytoplasm in mouse C2C12 cells upon cell differentiation. Notably, RBM4 is transiently deposited into cytoplasmic granules containing microtubule assembly factors as well as poly(A)⁺ RNAs. Moreover, RBM4 colocalizes with the components of micro-ribonucleoproteins, including the Argonaute2 (Ago2) protein, during muscle cell differentiation. RBM4 interacts directly with Ago2 and may recruit Ago2 to suppress translation of target mRNAs. Furthermore, RBM4 selectively associates with muscle cell-specific microRNAs and potentiates their translation repression activity by promoting micro-ribonucleoprotein association with target mRNAs. Altogether, our results suggest that RBM4 translocates to the cytoplasm and participates in translation suppression during muscle cell differentiation.     

RNA binding protein 24 regulates the translation and replication of hepatitis C virus

The secondary structures of hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA and the cellular proteins that bind to them are important for modulating both translation and RNA replication. However, the sets of RNA-binding proteins involved in the regulation of HCV translation, replication and encapsidation remain unknown. Here, we identified RNA binding motif protein 24 (RBM24) as a host factor participated in HCV translation and replication. Knockdown of RBM24 reduced HCV propagation in Huh7.5.1 cells. An enhanced translation and delayed RNA synthesis during the early phase of infection was observed in RBM24 silencing cells. However, both overexpression of RBM24 and recombinant human RBM24 protein suppressed HCV IRES-mediated translation. Further analysis revealed that the assembly of the 80S ribosome on the HCV IRES was interrupted by RBM24 protein through binding to the 5′-UTR. RBM24 could also interact with HCV Core and enhance the interaction of Core and 5′-UTR, which suppresses the expression of HCV. Moreover, RBM24 enhanced the interaction between the 5′- and 3′-UTRs in the HCV genome, which probably explained its requirement in HCV genome replication. Therefore, RBM24 is a novel host factor involved in HCV replication and may function at the switch from translation to replication.     

Multiple mechanisms repress N-Bak mRNA translation in the healthy and apoptotic neurons

N-Bak is a neuron-specific BH3-only splice variant of pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bak. We have shown that its mRNA is stable in the neurons, whereas the protein cannot be detected by antibodies, suggesting a strong translational arrest of the mRNA. Here we identify two regulatory elements in the N-Bak mRNA that significantly repress translation in the luciferase reporter assay: an upstream open reading frame in the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) and naturally spliced exon–exon junction downstream of the premature translation termination codon in the 3′UTR. We also show that N-Bak mRNA is stored in granular structures in the sympathetic neurons and stays in these granules during intrinsic apoptosis. Finally, we confirm the absence of N-Bak protein by quantitative mass spectrometry analysis in the healthy, apoptotic or stressed sympathetic and cortical neurons. We conclude that N-Bak mRNA is translationally repressed by multiple mechanisms, and the protein does not participate in the classical apoptosis or cellular stress response.     

Mycobacterial PE_PGRS Proteins Contain Calcium-Binding Motifs with Parallel β-roll Folds

The PE_PGRS family of proteins unique to mycobacteria is demonstrated to con- rain multiple calcium-binding and glycine-rich sequence motifs GGXGXD/NXUX. This sequence repeat constitutes a calcium-binding parallel/3-roll or parallel β-helix structure and is found in RTX toxins secreted by many Gram-negative bacteria. It is predicted that the highly homologous PE_PGRS proteins containing multiple copies of the nona-peptide motif could fold into similar calcium-binding structures. The implication of the predicted calcium-binding property of PE_PGRS proteins in the Ught of macrophage-pathogen interaction and pathogenesis is presented.     

Mycobacterial PE_PGRS Proteins Contain Calcium-Binding Motifs with Parallel β-roll Folds

The PE_PGRS family of proteins unique to mycobacteria is demonstrated to con- rain multiple calcium-binding and glycine-rich sequence motifs GGXGXD/NXUX. This sequence repeat constitutes a calcium-binding parallel/3-roll or parallel β-helix structure and is found in RTX toxins secreted by many Gram-negative bacteria. It is predicted that the highly homologous PE_PGRS proteins containing multiple copies of the nona-peptide motif could fold into similar calcium-binding structures. The implication of the predicted calcium-binding property of PE_PGRS proteins in the Ught of macrophage-pathogen interaction and pathogenesis is presented.     

Spatiotemporal Pattern of RNA-Binding Motif Protein 3 Expression After Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

RNA-binding motif protein 3 (RBM3) belongs to a very small group of cold inducible proteins with anti-apoptotic and proliferative functions. To elucidate the expression and possible function of RBM3 in central nervous system (CNS) lesion and repair, we performed a spinal cord injury (SCI) model in adult rats. Western blot analysis revealed that RBM3 level significantly increased at 1 day after damage, and then declined during the following days. Immunohistochemistry further confirmed that RBM3 immunoactivity was expressed at low levels in gray and white matters in normal condition and increased at 1 day after SCI. Besides, double immunofluorescence staining showed RBM3 was primarily expressed in the neurons and a few of astrocytes in the normal group. While after injury, the expression of RBM3 increased both in neurons and astrocytes at 1 day. We also examined the expression profiles of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and active caspase-3 in injured spinal cords by western blot. Importantly, double immunofluorescence staining revealed that cell proliferation evaluated by PCNA appeared in many RBM3-expressing cells and rare caspase-3 was observed in RBM3-expressing cells at 1 day after injury. Our data suggested that RBM3 might play important roles in CNS pathophysiology after SCI.     

Identification of an extracellular motif involved in the binding of guanine nucleotides by a glutamate receptor.

The chick cerebellar kainate (KA) binding protein (KBP), a member of the family of ionotropic glutamate receptors, harbours a glycine-rich (GxGxxG) motif known to be involved in the binding of ATP and GTP to kinases and G proteins respectively. Here, we report that guanine, but not adenine, nucleotides interact with KBP by inhibiting [3H]KA binding in a competitive-like manner, displaying IC50 values in the micromolar range. To locate the GTP binding site, KBP was photoaffinity labelled with [alpha-32P]GTP. The reaction was blocked by KA, glutamate, 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione and antibodies raised against a peptide containing the glycine-rich motif. Site-directed mutagenesis of residues K72 and Y73 within the glycine-rich motif followed by the expression of the KBP mutants at the surface of HEK 293 cells showed a decrease in GTP binding affinity by factors of 10 and 100 respectively. The binding of [3H]KA to the K72A/T KBP mutants was not affected but binding to the Y73I KBP mutant was decreased by a factor of 10. Accordingly, we propose that the glycine-rich motif of KBP forms part of a guanine nucleotide binding site. We further suggest that the glycine-rich motif is the binding site at which guanine nucleotides inhibit the glutamate-mediated responses of various members of the subfamily of glutamate ionotropic receptors.     

RNA结合模体蛋白3对细胞总蛋白质合成的影响及其靶基因的鉴定

RNA结合模体蛋白3 (RNA binding motif protein 3, RBM3) 受低温应激产生,参与介导亚低温的神经保护功能,但其作用机制及其下游靶分子尚不清楚。本研究构建了人RBM3基因的重组表达质粒,运用一种新型的、非放射性方法即翻译表面感应 (surface sensing of translation, SUnSET) 来检测RBM3过表达对细胞总蛋白质合成(global protein synthesis, GPS)的影响。结果显示,RBM3过表达使细胞总蛋白质的合成水平上调23.7% (P < 0.001),这与RBM3过表达引发的真核翻译延伸因子2 (eukaryotic translation elongation factor 2, eEF2)及真核翻译起始因子2α (eukaryotic initiation factor 2α, eIF2α) 的活性增高相一致。对RBM3可能的下游靶基因内质网蛋白3 (reticulon 3,RTN3),以及Yes相关蛋白1 (Yes-associated protein 1,YAP1) 的表达进行分析。结果显示,RBM3使RTN3及YAP1在蛋白质水平的表达分别提高了51.7% (P < 0.01) 与43.3% (P < 0.01)。与蛋白质水平变化相比,RBM3使YAP1在mRNA水平上调了2.0倍 (P < 0.001),但对RTN3的mRNA表达未见显著影响。以上研究表明,SUnSET是一种稳定、可靠的细胞GPS的检测手段;RBM3可显著促进细胞GPS,且对其下游基因RTN3和YAP1存在靶向关系。本研究的结果为深入探讨RBM3的神经保护作用机制提供了理论基础。     

Determinants of the interaction of the spinal muscular atrophy disease protein SMN with the dimethylarginine-modified box H/ACA small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein GAR1

Deletion or mutation of the SMN1 (survival of motor neurons) gene causes the common, fatal neuromuscular disease spinal muscular atrophy. The SMN protein is important in small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) assembly and interacts with snRNP proteins via arginine/glycine-rich domains. Recently, SMN was also found to interact with core protein components of the two major families of small nucleolar RNPs, fibrillarin and GAR1, suggesting that SMN may also function in the assembly of small nucleolar RNPs. Here we present results that indicate that the interaction of SMN with GAR1 is mediated by the Tudor domain of SMN. Single point mutations within the Tudor domain, including a spinal muscular atrophy patient mutation, impair the interaction of SMN with GAR1. Furthermore, we find that either of the two arginine/glycine-rich domains of GAR1 can provide for interaction with SMN, but removal of both results in loss of the interaction. Finally, we have found that unlike the interaction of SMN with the Sm snRNP proteins, interaction with GAR1 and fibrillarin is not enhanced by arginine dimethylation. Our results argue against post-translational arginine dimethylation as a general requirement for SMN recognition of proteins bearing arginine/glycine-rich domains.     

Neuronal RNA granules are ribosome complexes stalled at the pre-translocation state

The polarized cell morphology of neurons dictates many neuronal processes, including the axodendridic transport of specific mRNAs and subsequent translation. mRNAs together with ribosomes and RNA-binding proteins form RNA granules that are targeted to axodendrites for localized translation in neurons. It has been established that localized protein synthesis in neurons is essential for long-term memory formation, synaptic plasticity, and neurodegeneration. We have used proteomics and electron microscopy to characterize neuronal RNA granules (nRNAg) isolated from rat brain tissues or human neuroblastoma. We show that ribosome-containing RNA granules are morula-like structures when visualized by electron microscopy. Crosslinking-coupled mass-spectrometry identified a potential G3BP2 binding site on the ribosome near the eIF3d-binding site on the 40S ribosomal subunit. We used cryo-EM to resolve the structure of the ribosome-component of nRNAg. The cryo-EM reveals that predominant particles in nRNAg are 80S ribosomes, resembling the pre-translocation state where tRNA’s are in the hybrid A/P and P/E site. We also describe a new kind of principal motion of the ribosome, which we call the rocking motion.     

Mycobacterial PE_PGRS proteins contain calcium-binding motifs with parallel beta-roll folds

The PE_PGRS family of proteins unique to mycobacteria is demonstrated to contain multiple calcium-binding and glycine-rich sequence motifs GGXGXD/NXUX. This sequence repeat constitutes a calcium-binding parallel beta-roll or parallel beta-helix structure and is found in RTX toxins secreted by many Gram-negative bacteria. It is predicted that the highly homologous PE PGRS proteins containing multiple copies of the nona-peptide motif could fold into similar calcium-binding structures. The implication of the predicted calcium-binding property of PE PGRS proteins in the light of macrophage-pathogen interaction and pathogenesis is presented.     

Distinct structural features of caprin-1 mediate its interaction with G3BP-1 and its induction of phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2alpha, entry to cytoplasmic stress granules, and selective interaction with a subset of mRNAs

Caprin-1 is a ubiquitously expressed, well-conserved cytoplasmic phosphoprotein that is needed for normal progression through the G(1)-S phase of the cell cycle and occurs in postsynaptic granules in dendrites of neurons. We demonstrate that Caprin-1 colocalizes with RasGAP SH3 domain binding protein-1 (G3BP-1) in cytoplasmic RNA granules associated with microtubules and concentrated in the leading and trailing edge of migrating cells. Caprin-1 exhibits a highly conserved motif, F(M/I/L)Q(D/E)Sx(I/L)D that binds to the NTF-2-like domain of G3BP-1. The carboxy-terminal region of Caprin-1 selectively bound mRNA for c-Myc or cyclin D2, this binding being diminished by mutation of the three RGG motifs and abolished by deletion of the RGG-rich region. Overexpression of Caprin-1 induced phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2alpha (eIF-2alpha) through a mechanism that depended on its ability to bind mRNA, resulting in global inhibition of protein synthesis. However, cells lacking Caprin-1 exhibited no changes in global rates of protein synthesis, suggesting that physiologically, the effects of Caprin-1 on translation were limited to restricted subsets of mRNAs. Overexpression of Caprin-1 induced the formation of cytoplasmic stress granules (SG). Its ability to bind RNA was required to induce SG formation but not necessarily its ability to enter SG. The ability of Caprin-1 or G3BP-1 to induce SG formation or enter them did not depend on their association with each other. The Caprin-1/G3BP-1 complex is likely to regulate the transport and translation of mRNAs of proteins involved with synaptic plasticity in neurons and cellular proliferation and migration in multiple cell types.