p53蛋白泛素化修饰的研究进展

p53具有抑制肿瘤细胞增殖的作用,但是细胞内p53蛋白的堆积反而加速细胞衰老或凋亡,因此对p53进行严格的调控显得格外重要.泛素化、磷酸化和乙酰化是p53蛋白最主要的几种修饰形式,但近来研究表明泛素化对p53调控发挥着中心作用.MDM2是主要的负调节因子,其具有泛素连接酶的活性,早先的研究认为MDM2的作用主要是特异性结合p53并介导其在蛋白酶作用下降解,但近来的研究发现MDM2还可以介导p53的核-浆交换,这种现象在DNA损伤时尤为明显.推测MDM2介导p53的泛素化在体内可能发挥着多种调控功能.     

沙眼衣原体抑制宿主细胞凋亡机制的研究进展

沙眼衣原体是一类具有独特发育周期的革兰阴性病原体,能够引起人类多种疾病。沙眼衣原体感染的宿主细胞能够抵抗多种凋亡刺激,并且通过抑制宿主细胞凋亡从而完成自身的复制与发育。其抗凋亡机制可能与其参与调节宿主细胞MAPK信号途径、抑制线粒体细胞色素c的释放、上调凋亡抑制蛋白IAPs和降解促凋亡蛋白等多种机制有关。最新研究发现沙眼衣原体可以通过HDM2/MDM2与p53相互作用,促进p53蛋白水解,抑制细胞凋亡,从而导致持续性感染。     

MDM2/MDMX异二聚体及MDMX磷酸化调控p53的研究进展

p53作为肿瘤抑制因子在维持机体内稳态和抑制肿瘤发生发展中起到关键作用。超过半数的人类肿瘤中都存在p53的突变。突变的p53具有"获得性功能",反而促进肿瘤的发生、转移和耐药。MDM2和MDMX是两个最主要的p53负调控蛋白,二者是同源蛋白,可以独自或以异二聚体的方式调控p53。在多种刺激信号下,MDM2/MDMX异二聚体对p53的负调控作用被抑制,使得p53活化进而激活下游复杂的信号网络,维持细胞内稳态。磷酸化修饰是MDMX调节的重要方式之一,对其自身的稳定性、核定位以及与MDM2、p53的相互作用均有影响。该文对以上内容进行简要综述,并对现有治疗靶标和小分子化合物进行讨论,为进一步开发新的有效的肿瘤治疗策略提供思路。     

调控p53蛋白的转录因子

肿瘤抑制因子p53被称为"分子警察",它在维持细胞正常生长及抑制恶性增殖过程中起重要作用。p53的表达水平受多种因素影响,其中转录水平的调控是基因发挥功能的一个重要步骤。因此,针对调控p53蛋白的转录因子这一环节阐明p53发挥功能的分子机理,有望为肿瘤治疗、预防和新药研发提供新的靶标。本文着重对调控p53蛋白的转录因子进行综述。     

肿瘤细胞中存活蛋白与p53的相互作用

存活蛋白(survivin)作为凋亡抑制蛋白(IAP)家族的最小成员,在肿瘤组织中高表达,且具有严格的细胞周期依赖性,而p53作为细胞周期中的负调节因子,参与了细胞周期调控和细胞凋亡等重要的生物学功能。最近研究表明,存活蛋白与p53的相互作用在肿瘤的发生发展中具有重要作用。该文将从细胞周期与细胞凋亡的角度对存活蛋白/p53通路在肿瘤中的研究进展进行阐明。     

p53在肿瘤发生过程中的功能研究及进展

p53是迄今为止细胞中最为重要的肿瘤抑制因子之一.p53能够响应细胞内外众多的信号刺激,通过抑制细胞生长、诱导细胞凋亡、促进DNA损伤修复等过程抑制肿瘤的发生发展.近年来发现p53在细胞自噬、细胞代谢,尤其在葡萄糖代谢中也发挥重要作用.p53在超过1/2的人类肿瘤中,发生缺失或突变,提示p53突变和肿瘤发生是紧密相关的.本文将主要结合本研究组近十年来围绕p53所开展的相关研究,从p53自身稳定性的调控机制、p53与肿瘤发生、p53与细胞代谢以及p53调控非编码RNA方面进行简要综述,并展望p53研究的新方向.     

PUMA与心肌细胞凋亡的研究进展

p53上调的凋亡调节物(p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis,PUMA)是新近发现的一种具有促凋亡作用的p53靶基因.与以往发现的其他p53靶基因比较,PUMA在促凋亡作用中有两个重要的特点:一是PUMA几乎介导p53依赖的所有凋亡信号;二是PUMA不仅介导p53依赖的凋亡信号,而且还可以介导p53非依赖的凋亡信号.也就是说,尽管PUMA是p53靶基因,但是其在p53非依赖细胞凋亡中也发挥重要作用.由此可见,PUMA是一个强大的促凋亡因子.在心肌细胞,PUMA参与缺血/再灌注、内质网应激、阿霉素等多种刺激诱导的细胞凋亡.因此,PUMA在心肌细胞凋亡中发挥重要作用.     

p53参与代谢调控的研究进展

p53作为肿瘤抑制因子,其不仅参与遗传毒性应激调节,而且在代谢平衡调控中也发挥重要作用。当机体或细胞处于不同生理逆境时,活化的p53通过参与糖代谢、脂肪酸代谢、ROS水平等相关调节信号通路影响各种代谢途径,进而通过诱导细胞周期阻滞、修复、衰老或凋亡的发生,最终调控机体或细胞产生代谢应激。总结了近年来p53途径的相关报道,对p53与癌症、代谢综合证的关系进行了阐述,以期为进一步理解p53参与的代谢调控提供参考。     

肿瘤抑制蛋白p53的活性调控

p53 又称为分子警察或基因的保护神.在面对不同类型和强度的应激时,细胞究竟选择细胞周期停滞、凋亡还是衰老时 p53发挥中心调节作用.作为一种转录调控因子它主要通过对下游的目的基因进行转录调控来发挥功能.p53 结合 DNA 启动子能力也可通过多种方式被调节.这些调节机制主要包括 p53 的亚细胞定位调控、p53 的蛋白稳定性调控和 p53 的翻译后修饰.     

microRNAs与TP53基因调控网络研究进展

TP53基因(编码p53蛋白)作为一个重要的抑瘤基因,通过调控一系列信号转导通路广泛参与了多种恶性肿瘤的发生发展,一直是肿瘤分子生物学研究领域的热点.最近的研究发现,microRNAs(miRNAs)参与了TP53的信号通路,它们之间存在着复杂的调控网络.一方面,p53通过调控一些miRNAs的转录及转录后成熟,促进细胞周期阻滞、诱导细胞凋亡和衰老,抑制肿瘤发生.另一方面,许多miRNAs,如miR-25、miR-30d、miR-125b和miR-504等可直接调控p53的表达与活性,参与TP53信号通路的调节,还有一些miRNAs则通过调节p53上下游基因,发挥重要的生物学功能.其中,最具有代表性的是miR-34家族,它们受p53直接调控并参与TP53信号通路,通过靶向抑制多个TP53信号通路关键分子的表达,发挥抑瘤作用.此外,它们还可以通过抑制沉默信息调节子,增强p53的活性,反馈调节TP53信号通路.miRNAs与TP53之间调控网络的研究,是对TP53抑瘤机制的重要补充.     

mRNA display selection of an optimized MDM2-binding peptide that potently inhibits MDM2-p53 interaction

p53 is a tumor suppressor protein that prevents tumorigenesis through cell cycle arrest or apoptosis of cells in response to cellular stress such as DNA damage. Because the oncoprotein MDM2 interacts with p53 and inhibits its activity, MDM2-p53 interaction has been a major target for the development of anticancer drugs. While previous studies have used phage display to identify peptides (such as DI) that inhibit the MDM2-p53 interaction, these peptides were not sufficiently optimized because the size of the phage-displayed random peptide libraries did not cover all of the possible sequences. In this study, we performed selection of MDM2-binding peptides from large random peptide libraries in two stages using mRNA display. We identified an optimal peptide named MIP that inhibited the MDM2-p53 and MDMX-p53 interactions 29- and 13-fold more effectively than DI, respectively. Expression of MIP fused to the thioredoxin scaffold protein in living cells by adenovirus caused stabilization of p53 through its interaction with MDM2, resulting in activation of the p53 pathway. Furthermore, expression of MIP also inhibited tumor cell proliferation in a p53-dependent manner more potently than DI. These results show that two-stage, mRNA-displayed peptide selection is useful for the rapid identification of potent peptides that target oncoproteins.     

The ARF-B23 connection: implications for growth control and cancer treatment

The tumor suppressor ARF induces a p53-dependent and -independent cell cycle arrest. Unlike nucleoplasmic localized MDM2 and p53, ARF localizes in the nucleolus. The role of ARF in the nucleolus and the molecular target and mechanism of ARF's p53-independent function remain both controversial and a fertile field of research. Recent study has identified the nucleolar protein B23 as a target of ARF for implementing its growth inhibitory function. The ability of ARF to block cell cycle progression through the MDM2-p53 pathway and to suppress ribosomal biogenesis through B23 suggest a role for ARF in coordinating inhibitions of growth and proliferation.     

Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway

The gene encoding p53 mediates a major tumor suppression pathway that is frequently altered in human cancers. p53 function is kept at a low level during normal cell growth and is activated in response to various cellular stresses. The MDM2 oncoprotein plays a key role in negatively regulating p53 activity by either direct repression of p53 transactivation activity in the nucleus or promotion of p53 degradation in the cytoplasm. DNA damage and oncogenic insults, the two best-characterized p53-dependent checkpoint pathways, both activate p53 through inhibition of MDM2. Here we report that the human homologue of MDM2, HDM2, binds to ribosomal protein L11. L11 binds a central region in HDM2 that is distinct from the ARF binding site. We show that the functional consequence of L11-HDM2 association, like that with ARF, results in the prevention of HDM2-mediated p53 ubiquitination and degradation, subsequently restoring p53-mediated transactivation, accumulating p21 protein levels, and inducing a p53-dependent cell cycle arrest by canceling the inhibitory function of HDM2. Interference with ribosomal biogenesis by a low concentration of actinomycin D is associated with an increased L11-HDM2 interaction and subsequent p53 stabilization. We suggest that L11 functions as a negative regulator of HDM2 and that there might exist in vivo an L11-HDM2-p53 pathway for monitoring ribosomal integrity.     

Stabilization of P/CAF,as a ubiquitin ligase toward MDM2, suppresses mitotic cell death through p53-p21 activation in HCT116 cells with SIRT2 suppression

We previously reported that the suppression of SIRT2, an NAD + -dependent protein deacetylases, induces p53 accumulation via degradation of p300 and the subsequent MDM2 degradation, eventually leading to apoptosis in HeLa cells. The present study identified a novel pathway of p53 accumulation by SIRT2 suppression in HCT116(p53+/+) cells in which SIRT2 suppression led to escape from mitotic cell death caused by spindle assembly checkpoint activation induced by microtubule inhibitors such as nocodazole but not apoptosis or G1 or G2 arrest. We found that SIRT2 interacts with P/CAF, a histone acetyltransferase, which also acts as a ubiquitin ligase against MDM2. SIRT2 suppression led to an increase of P/CAF acetylation and its stabilization followed by a decrease in MDM2 and activation of the p53-p21 pathway. Depression of mitotic cell death in HCT116(p53+/+) cells with SIRT2 suppression was released by suppression of P/CAF or p21. Thus, the P/CAF-MDM2-p53-p21 axis enables the escape from mitotic cell death and confers resistance to nocodazole in HCT116(p53+/+) cells with SIRT2 suppression. As SIRT2 has attracted attention as a potential target for cancer therapeutics for p53 regulation, the present study provides a molecular basis for the efficacy of SIRT2 for future cancer therapy based on p53 regulation. These findings also suggest an undesirable function of the SIRT2 suppression associated with activation of the p53-p21 pathway in the suppression of mitotic cell death caused by spindle assembly checkpoint activation.     

Interplay between ribosomal protein S27a and MDM2 protein in p53 activation in response to ribosomal stress

Ribosomal proteins play a critical role in tightly coordinating p53 signaling with ribosomal biogenesis. Several ribosomal proteins have been shown to induce and activate p53 via inhibition of MDM2. Here, we report that S27a, a small subunit ribosomal protein synthesized as an 80-amino acid ubiquitin C-terminal extension protein (CEP80), functions as a novel regulator of the MDM2-p53 loop. S27a interacts with MDM2 at the central acidic domain of MDM2 and suppresses MDM2-mediated p53 ubiquitination, leading to p53 activation and cell cycle arrest. Knockdown of S27a significantly attenuates the p53 activation in cells in response to treatment with ribosomal stress-inducing agent actinomycin D or 5-fluorouracil. Interestingly, MDM2 in turn ubiquitinates S27a and promotes proteasomal degradation of S27a in response to actinomycin D treatment, thus forming a mutual-regulatory loop. Altogether, our results reveal that S27a plays a non-redundant role in mediating p53 activation in response to ribosomal stress via interplaying with MDM2.     

Small-Molecule Antagonists of p53-MDM2 Binding: Research Tools and Potential Therapeutics

p53 regulates a key pathway which protects normal tissues from tumor development that may result from diverse forms of stress. In the absence of stress, growth suppressive and proapoptotic activity of p53 is inhibited by MDM2 which binds p53 and negatively regulates its activity and stability. MDM2 antagonists could activate p53 and may offer a novel therapeutic approach to cancer. Recently, we identified the first potent and selective low molecular weight inhibitors of MDM2-p53 binding, the Nutlins. These molecules activate the p53 pathway and suppress tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. Nutlins represent valuable new tools for studying the p53 pathway and its defects in cancer. Their potent activity against osteosarcoma xenogrfts suggests that MDM2 antagonists may have a clinical utility in the treatment of tumors with wild-type p53.     

CARF is a novel protein that cooperates with mouse p19ARF (human p14ARF) in activating p53

The INK4a locus on chromosome 9p21 encodes two structurally distinct tumor suppressor proteins, p16(INK4a) and the alternative reading frame protein, ARF (p19(ARF) in mouse and p14(ARF) in human). Each of these proteins has a role in senescence of primary cells and activates pathways for cell cycle control and tumor suppression. The current prevailing model proposes that p19(ARF) activates p53 function by antagonizing its degradation by MDM2. It was, however, recently shown that stabilization of p53 by p14(ARF) occurs independent of the relocalization of MDM2 to the nucleolus. We have identified a novel collaborator of ARF, CARF. It co-localizes and interacts with ARF in the nucleolus. We demonstrate that CARF is co-regulated with ARF, cooperates with it in activating p53, and thus acts as a novel component of the ARF-p53-p21 pathway.     

Small-molecule antagonists of p53-MDM2 binding: research tools and potential therapeutics

p53 regulates a key pathway which protects normal tissues from tumor development that may result from diverse forms of stress. In the absence of stress, growth suppressive and proapoptotic activity of p53 is inhibited by MDM2 which binds p53 and negatively regulates its activity and stability. MDM2 antagonists could activate p53 and may offer a novel therapeutic approach to cancer. Recently, we identified the first potent and selective low molecular weight inhibitors of MDM2-p53 binding, the Nutlins. These molecules activate the p53 pathway and suppress tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. They represent valuable new tools for studying the p53 pathway and its defects in cancer. Nutlins induce p53-dependent apoptosis in human cancer cells but appear cytostatic to proliferating normal cells. Their potent activity against osteosarcoma xenografts suggests that MDM2 antagonists may have clinical utility in the treatment of tumors with wild-type p53.