中枢神经系统谷氨酸转运体的研究进展

在中枢神经系统,谷氨酸转运体在谷氨酸一谷氨酰胺循环中发挥着重要作用。谷氨酸转运体有高亲和力转运体,即兴奋性氨基酸转运体（excitatory amino acid transporters,EAATs）和低亲和力转运体,即囊泡谷氨酸转运体（vesicular glutamate transporters,VGLUTs）两种类型。其中,VGLUTs的功能是特异地将突触囊泡外的谷氨酸转运进入突触囊泡内,它包括三个成员,分别是VGLUT1、VGLUT2和VGLUT3。一方面,VGLUT1和VGLUT2标记了所有的谷氨酸能神经元,是谷氦酸能神经元和它们轴突末端高度特异的标志;另一方面,VGLUT1标志着皮质一皮质投射,而VGLUT2则标志着丘脑一皮层投射,VGLUT3则位于抑制性突触末端。     

胶质细胞谷氨酸转运体及其在脑缺血和脑缺血预适应中的变化

兴奋性氨基酸转运体(excitatory amino acid transporters,EAATs)是摄取细胞外液谷氨酸、保持细胞外谷氨酸低浓度的主要机制,已发现了五种EAATs,其中胶质细胞谷氨酸转运体在终止谷氨酸能神经传递、维持细胞外液谷氨酸浓度处于低水平方面发挥更重要作用。胶质细胞谷氨酸转运体的表达和功能受谷氨酸及其受体、垂体腺苷酸环化酶激活多肽、生长因子、内皮素、一氧化氮等许多因素的影响,其表达减少及功能降低与脑缺血损害的发生和发展密切相关,脑缺血预适应可通过调控其表达或改善其功能而诱导脑缺血耐受。     

高亲和力谷氨酸转运体

高亲和力谷氨酸转运体主要位于神经元和胶质细胞的细胞膜上,能逆浓度梯度从胞外向胞内摄取谷氨酸,中止谷氨酸能传递,使胞外谷氨酸浓度保持在较低水平,以保护神经元不受谷氨酸的毒性影响。近年来,随着高亲和力谷氨酸转运体的克隆,有关研究迅速发展。本文从高亲和力谷氨酸转运体的克隆、分子结构特征、表达分布、生理功能、结构－功能关系等方面对近年的进展加以综述。     

兴奋性氨基酸转运体2在神经退行性变中的作用

谷氨酸是脑内必需的兴奋性神经递质之一,兴奋性氨基酸转运体（Excitatory amino acid transporterEAAT）2是最主要的谷氨酸转运体,负责脑内90%以上的谷氨酸再摄取,调节突触间隙的谷氨酸浓度。EAAT2功能紊乱导致胞外谷氨酸过量积聚,在多种神经退行性疾病的发病过程中起重要作用,如阿尔茨海默病、亨廷顿舞蹈病、肌萎缩侧索硬化等。对于人EAAT2启动子的研究发现,NF-kB在星形胶质细胞中对EAAT2表达起关键作用。通过筛选1 040种FDA批准的化合物,发现多种β-内酰胺类抗生素如头孢曲松钠等是EAAT2的转录激活剂,可以增加EAAT2的蛋白表达水平,产生神经保护作用。     

岗田酸诱导大鼠脑神经细胞表达谷氨酸转运体EAAT1

为研究tau蛋白高度磷酸化与谷氨酸转运体功能之间的关系,实验采用免疫组织化学、荧光双标记技术及大鼠额叶皮质定位注射的方法,观察了蛋白磷酸酶抑制剂岗田酸（okadaic acid,OA)所致神经细胞退化对谷氨酸转运体亚型EAAT1表达的影响。结果如下：（1）在OA注射中心区神经元早期出现胞体固缩、肿胀、核移位,在注射3d时细胞破碎,发生坏死,并有大量炎性细胞浸润等病理现象;边周区细胞呈AT8（微管相关蛋白tau磷酸化指标）免疫阳性反应;（2）OA首先诱导神经细胞突起远端tau蛋白磷酸化,并逐渐向胞体发展,形成营养不良的神经细胞突起和神经纤维缠结样病理改变;（3）AT8免疫阳性反应脑区的神经细胞高表达谷氨酸转运体EAAT1,在12h阳性表达细胞数显著增多（P＜0．01）,1d时达峰值（P＜0．001）,3d时明显减少。在OA作用下EAAT1表达于星形胶质细胞和神经元。结果提示,OA致微管相关蛋白tau高度磷酸化时可诱导该区星形胶质细胞和神经元高表达谷氨酸转体EAAT1。EAAT1高表达的病理生理意义有待进一步的阐明。     

ABCA1的胞内运输及功能研究新进展

三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体A1(ABCA1)具有介导细胞内脂质流出,维持细胞脂质稳态的功能．新生的ABCA1必须经过胞内运输和各种化学修饰等过程,最终成为具有功能的成熟转运体,才能行使其转运脂质的功能,因此,ABCA1在胞内的运输过程和正确质膜定位对其介导胆固醇流出的功能至关重要．目前ABCA1相关研究主要集中于脂质转运方面,并提出各种胆固醇流出机制的模型,如通道转运模型、蘑菇状突起模型和胞吞-胞吐转运模型等．最近研究显示,ABCA1还具有调节质膜脂筏结构、参与免疫和炎症调节等新功能．本文主要针对ABCA1的胞内运输过程以及各种功能做一综述,以期为动脉粥样硬化相关疾病提供新的治疗靶点和途径．     

胱氨酸/谷氨酸反向转运体的研究进展

胱氨酸/谷氨酸反向转运体(System Xc-)可摄取胱氨酸、排出谷氨酸,既为胞内谷胱甘肽合成提供原料,又参与胞外谷氨酸浓度调控。该转运体可发挥抗氧化应激和调控神经信号传递等作用,与中枢神经系统疾病、肿瘤生长与耐药性形成等多种疾病密切相关。本文对System Xc-在生物学特征、生理和病理功能、转运活性调控以及相关发病机制中作用的研究进展作一综述,这些研究为相关疾病的诊治提供有益的线索。     

CaMKⅡ介导的谷氨酸受体磷酸化(英文)

钙/钙调蛋白依赖的蛋白激酶Ⅱ(Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase Ⅱ,CaMKⅡ)在脑内兴奋性突触部位丰富表达。通过催化谷氨酸受体和众多突触蛋白磷酸化,CaMKⅡ调节磷酸化蛋白在基础或细胞兴奋时的转运、分布和功能。谷氨酸NMDA受体是CaMKⅡ的直接底物,有证据表明CaMKⅡ直接与NMDA受体胞内C末端相互结合,催化一特定丝氨酸(S1303)的磷酸化。CaMKⅡ也加强谷氨酸AMPA受体的磷酸化,通过磷酸化AMPA受体C末端特定的丝氨酸(S831),CaMKⅡ增强AMPA受体的功能。此外,CaMKⅡ可与代谢型谷氨酸受体mGluR1亚型的胞内C末端结合,促进一特定苏氨酸(T871)的磷酸化,从而促进受体兴奋后脱敏。CaMKⅡ在正常状态下与mGluR5受体结合以储存于突触内,刺激mGluR5受体时,CaMKⅡ与mGluR5受体分离,转运至NMDA受体,以介导mGluR5信号对NMDA受体的增强作用。总之,CaMKⅡ与谷氨酸受体相互作用,改变受体磷酸化水平,参与受体的数量和功能以及突触传导活动的调节。     

星形胶质细胞释放谷氨酸的机制

谷氨酸是介导中枢神经系统快速兴奋性传导的一种重要递质.以往人们仅注意到神经元通过释放谷氨酸来调节其可塑性,而近年来发现脑中远超出神经元10倍的星形胶质细胞同样能释放谷氨酸并参与神经系统的调节及多种脑损伤性疾病的发生发展过程.目前主要包括Ca2 依赖性释放及非Ca2 依赖性释放两大方面,涉及5种机制:(1)Ca2 依赖性胞吐释放;(2)谷氨酸转运体逆向转运假说;(3)膨胀诱导的阴离子通道假说;(4)连接蛋白半通道假说;(5)嘌呤受体假说.     

ABC转运蛋白结构及在植物病原真菌中的功能研究进展

ABC(ATP-binding cassette)转运蛋白是最大的膜转运蛋白超家族之一,其主要功能是利用ATP水解产生的能量将底物进行逆浓度梯度运输.所有生物体都含有大量ABC蛋白.ABC蛋白位于细胞的不同空间,如细胞膜、液泡、线粒体和过氧化物酶体.通常,ABC转运蛋白由跨膜结构域(TMD)和核苷酸结合结构域(NBD)组成,分别与底物和ATP结合.NBD执行与ATP结合和水解,是ABC转运蛋白的动力引擎,TMD识别特异性配体.大多数ABC转运蛋白最初是通过研究生物体耐药性而被发现的,包括多效耐药(PDR)和多药耐药(MDR).本文对ABC转运蛋白的结构及作用机制,以及植物病原真菌中ABC转运蛋白功能的研究进展进行综述.     

The uncoupled chloride conductance of a bacterial glutamate transporter homolog

Glutamate transporters (EAATs) are pivotal in mammalian synaptic transmission, tightly regulating synaptic levels of this excitatory neurotransmitter. In addition to coupled glutamate transport, the EAATs also show an uncoupled Cl(-) conductance, whose physiological importance has recently been demonstrated. Little is yet known about the molecular mechanism of chloride permeation. Here we show that Glt(Ph), a bacterial EAAT homolog whose structure has been determined, displays an uncoupled Cl(-) conductance that can determine the rate of substrate uptake. A mutation analogous to one known to specifically affect Cl(-) movement in EAAT1 has similar effects on Glt(Ph), suggesting that this protein is an excellent structural model for understanding Cl(-) permeation through the EAATs. We also observed an uncoupled Cl(-) conductance in another bacterial EAAT homolog but not in a homolog of the Na(+)/Cl(-)-coupled neurotransmitter transporters.     

Functional Properties of the Retinal Glutamate Transporters GLT-1c and EAAT5

In the mammalian retina, glutamate uptake is mediated by members of a family of glutamate transporters known as “excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs).” Here we cloned and functionally characterized two retinal EAATs from mouse, the GLT-1/EAAT2 splice variant GLT-1c, and EAAT5. EAATs are glutamate transporters and anion-selective ion channels, and we used heterologous expression in mammalian cells, patch-clamp recordings and noise analysis to study and compare glutamate transport and anion channel properties of both EAAT isoforms. We found GLT-1c to be an effective glutamate transporter with high affinity for Na⁺ and glutamate that resembles original GLT-1/EAAT2 in all tested functional aspects. EAAT5 exhibits glutamate transport rates too low to be accurately measured in our experimental system, with significantly lower affinities for Na⁺ and glutamate than GLT-1c. Non-stationary noise analysis demonstrated that GLT-1c and EAAT5 also differ in single-channel current amplitudes of associated anion channels. Unitary current amplitudes of EAAT5 anion channels turned out to be approximately twice as high as single-channel amplitudes of GLT-1c. Moreover, at negative potentials open probabilities of EAAT5 anion channels were much larger than for GLT-1c. Our data illustrate unique functional properties of EAAT5, being a low-affinity and low-capacity glutamate transport system, with an anion channel optimized for anion conduction in the negative voltage range.     

Selective high-affinity transport of aspartate by a Drosophila homologue of the excitatory amino-acid transporters

Excitatory amino-acid transporters (EAATs) are structurally related plasma membrane proteins that mediate the high-affinity uptake of the acidic amino acids glutamate and aspartate released at excitatory synapses, and maintain the extracellular concentrations of these neurotransmitters below excitotoxic levels [1] [2] [3] [4]. Several members of the EAAT family have been described previously. So far, all known EAATs have been reported to transport glutamate and aspartate with a similar affinity. Here, we report that dEAAT2 - a nervous tissue-specific EAAT homologue that we recently identified in the fruit fly Drosophila [5] - is a selective Na(+)-dependent high-affinity aspartate transporter (K(m) = 30 microM). We found that dEAAT2 can also transport L-glutamate but with a much lower affinity (K(m) = 185 microM) and a 10- to 15-fold lower relative efficacy (V(max)/K(m)). Competition experiments showed that the binding of glutamate to this transporter is much weaker than the binding of D- or L-aspartate. As dEAAT2 is the first known EAAT to show this substrate selectivity, it suggests that aspartate may play a specific role in the Drosophila nervous system.     

Hetero-oligomerization of neuronal glutamate transporters

Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) mediate the uptake of glutamate into neuronal and glial cells of the mammalian central nervous system. Two transporters expressed primarily in glia, EAAT1 and EAAT2, are crucial for glutamate homeostasis in the adult mammalian brain. Three neuronal transporters (EAAT3, EAAT4, and EAAT5) appear to have additional functions in regulating and processing cellular excitability. EAATs are assembled as trimers, and the existence of multiple isoforms raises the question of whether certain isoforms can form hetero-oligomers. Co-expression and pulldown experiments of various glutamate transporters showed that EAAT3 and EAAT4, but neither EAAT1 and EAAT2, nor EAAT2 and EAAT3 are capable of co-assembling into heterotrimers. To study the functional consequences of hetero-oligomerization, we co-expressed EAAT3 and the serine-dependent mutant R501C EAAT4 in HEK293 cells and Xenopus laevis oocytes and studied glutamate/serine transport and anion conduction using electrophysiological methods. Individual subunits transport glutamate independently of each other. Apparent substrate affinities are not affected by hetero-oligomerization. However, polarized localization in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells was different for homo- and hetero-oligomers. EAAT3 inserts exclusively into apical membranes of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells when expressed alone. Co-expression with EAAT4 results in additional appearance of basolateral EAAT3. Our results demonstrate the existence of heterotrimeric glutamate transporters and provide novel information about the physiological impact of EAAT oligomerization.     

The Role of Excitatory Amino Acid Transporters in Cerebral Ischemia

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that plays a major role in the pathogenesis of ischemia brain injury. The regulation of glutamate neurotransmission is carried out by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) that act through reuptake of glutamate into cells. EAATs may also release glutamate into the extracellular space in a calcium-independent manner during ischemia and dysfunction of EAATs is specifically implicated in the pathology of cerebral ischemia. Recent studies show that up-regulation of EAAT2 provides neuroprotection during ischemic insult. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the role of EAATs in cerebral ischemia.     

Na+-dependent high-affinity glutamate transport in macrophages

Excessive accumulation of glutamate in the CNS leads to excitotoxic neuronal damage. However, glutamate clearance is essentially mediated by astrocytes through Na+-dependent high-affinity glutamate transporters (excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs)). Nevertheless, EAAT function was recently shown to be developmentally restricted in astrocytes and undetectable in mature astrocytes. This suggests a need for other cell types for clearing glutamate in the brain. As blood monocytes infiltrate the CNS in traumatic or inflammatory conditions, we addressed the question of whether macrophages expressed EAATs and were involved in glutamate clearance. We found that macrophages derived from human blood monocytes express both the cystine/glutamate antiporter and EAATs. Kinetic parameters were similar to those determined for neonatal astrocytes and embryonic neurons. Freshly sorted tissue macrophages did not possess EAATs, whereas cultured human spleen macrophages and cultured neonatal murine microglia did. Moreover, blood monocytes did not transport glutamate, but their stimulation with TNF-alpha led to functional transport. This suggests that the acquisition of these transporters by macrophages could be under the control of inflammatory molecules. Also, monocyte-derived macrophages overcame glutamate toxicity in neuron cultures by clearing this molecule. This suggests that brain-infiltrated macrophages and resident microglia may acquire EAATs and, along with astrocytes, regulate extracellular glutamate concentration. Moreover, we showed that EAATs are involved in the regulation of glutathione synthesis by providing intracellular glutamate. These observations thus offer new insight into the role of macrophages in excitotoxicity and in their response to oxidative stress.     

Glutamate Transporters EAAT4 and EAAT5 Are Expressed in Vestibular Hair Cells and Calyx Endings

Glutamate is the neurotransmitter released from hair cells. Its clearance from the synaptic cleft can shape neurotransmission and prevent excitotoxicity. This may be particularly important in the inner ear and in other sensory organs where there is a continually high rate of neurotransmitter release. In the case of most cochlear and type II vestibular hair cells, clearance involves the diffusion of glutamate to supporting cells, where it is taken up by EAAT1 (GLAST), a glutamate transporter. A similar mechanism cannot work in vestibular type I hair cells as the presence of calyx endings separates supporting cells from hair-cell synapses. Because of this arrangement, it has been conjectured that a glutamate transporter must be present in the type I hair cell, the calyx ending, or both. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we demonstrate that a glutamate-activated anion current, attributable to a high-affinity glutamate transporter and blocked by DL-TBOA, is expressed in type I, but not in type II hair cells. Molecular investigations reveal that EAAT4 and EAAT5, two glutamate transporters that could underlie the anion current, are expressed in both type I and type II hair cells and in calyx endings. EAAT4 has been thought to be expressed almost exclusively in the cerebellum and EAAT5 in the retina. Our results show that these two transporters have a wider distribution in mice. This is the first demonstration of the presence of transporters in hair cells and provides one of the few examples of EAATs in presynaptic elements.     

The chloride permeation pathway of a glutamate transporter and its proximity to the glutamate translocation pathway

Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) regulate glutamate concentrations in the brain to maintain normal excitatory synaptic transmission. A widely accepted view of transporters is that they consist of a pore with alternating access to the intracellular and extracellular solutions, which serves to couple ion movement to the movement of substrate. However, recent observations that EAATs, and also a number of other neurotransmitter transporters, can also function as ligand-gated chloride channels have blurred the distinctions between transporters and ion channels. Here we show that mutations in the second transmembrane domain (TM2) of EAAT1 alter anion permeation properties without affecting glutamate transport and that a number of TM2 residues are accessible to the external aqueous solution. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the extracellular edge of TM2 is in close proximity to a membrane-associated domain that influences glutamate transport. This study will provide the foundation for beginning to understand how transporters can function as both transporters and ion channels.     

Neuronal glutamate transporters vary in substrate transport rate but not in unitary anion channel conductance

Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) not only sustain a secondary active glutamate transport but also function as anion-selective ion channels. The relative proportion of currents generated by glutamate transport or by the chloride conductance varies for each cloned EAAT subtype. For EAAT1, EAAT2, and EAAT3, the anion current is only a small component of the total transporter-associated current amplitude, whereas EAAT4 and EAAT5 transporters mediate predominantly anion currents. We here demonstrate that the distinct current proportions are entirely due to differences in glutamate transport rates. EAAT3 and EAAT4 differ in unitary glutamate transport rates as well as in the voltage and substrate dependence of anion channel opening, but ion conduction properties are very similar. Noise analysis revealed identical unitary current amplitudes and similar absolute open probabilities for the two anion channels. The low glutamate transport rate of EAAT4 allows regulation of cellular excitability without interfering with extracellular glutamate homeostasis and makes this EAAT isoform ideally suited to regulate excitability in dendritic spines of Purkinje neurons.     

Neuroprotective properties of the excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1)

Extracellular glutamate should be maintained at low levels to conserve optimal neurotransmission and prevent glutamate neurotoxicity in the brain. Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) play a pivotal role in removing extracellular glutamate in the central nervous system (CNS). Excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) is a high-affinity Na⁺-dependent neuronal EAAT that is ubiquitously expressed in the brain. However, most glutamate released in the synapses is cleared by glial EAATs, but not by EAAC1 in vivo. In the CNS, EAAC1 is widely distributed in somata and dendrites but not in synaptic terminals. The contribution of EAAC1 to the control of extracellular glutamate levels seems to be negligible in the brain. However, EAAC1 can transport not only extracellular glutamate but also cysteine into the neurons. Cysteine is an important substrate for glutathione (GSH) synthesis in the brain. GSH has a variety of neuroprotective functions, while its depletion induces neurodegeneration. Therefore, EAAC1 might exert a critical role for neuroprotection in neuronal GSH metabolism rather than glutamatergic neurotransmission, while EAAC1 dysfunction would cause neurodegeneration. Despite the potential importance of EAAC1 in the brain, previous studies have mainly focused on the glutamate neurotoxicity induced by glial EAAT dysfunction. In recent years, however, several studies have revealed regulatory mechanisms of EAAC1 functions in the brain. This review will summarize the latest information on the EAAC1-regulated neuroprotective functions in the CNS.