新型胞质DNA感受通路：cGAS-STING的研究进展

细胞胞质中存在的游离DNA一直被宿主的固有免疫系统当做潜在的危险信号,但免疫系统识别和清除这些危险信号的机制还不明确.近几年有研究发现,DNA感受器(DNA sensor)是宿主感受DNA和免疫防御的桥梁,目前已经有超过10种DNA感受器被发现,而干扰素刺激基因(stimulator of interferon genes,STING,也称为TMEM173、MPYS、MITA和ERIS)作为一种DNA感受通路下游关键的接头分子,在感受胞质DNA和免疫防御方面起着重要的信号传递作用,胞质中的DNA可通过DNA感受器激活STING,再激活Ⅰ型干扰素和其他细胞因子,进而启动机体的免疫反应.近些年,胞质中游离DNA如何激活STING,进而如何在体内启动免疫反应以产生抗病毒或抗菌作用的机制研究取得了显著进展.最近,在哺乳动物细胞中发现了一种新型的核酸转移酶cGAS(cyclic GMP-AMPsynthase),它能识别DNA并能产生一种内源性的环化二核苷酸cGAMP(cyclic GMP-AMP)激活STING.本文将最近关于cGAS的发现、胞质DNA通过cGAS激活STING及STING活化后激活机体免疫反应的机制进行了综述.     

干扰素基因刺激因子和自噬的相互关系

干扰素基因刺激因子（stimulator of interferon genes,STING）是病毒DNA或自身DNA激活免疫系统的关键蛋白质和重要感受器。自噬（autophagy）是降解细胞质成分、蛋白质聚集体和/或细胞器的一种生理过程。STING和自噬在细胞、组织和机体稳态中发挥着至关重要的作用。已证实,STING或自噬功能紊乱与人类多种疾病密切相关。近年来诸多研究提示,STING与自噬存在相互影响、相互作用,共同参与疾病的发生与发展过程。本文总结了最新关于STING与自噬相互调节的机制及其与人类重大疾病的关系,并深入讨论其对疾病治疗的潜在影响和科学意义。     

STING在宿主天然免疫信号通路中的调节作用

STING(stimulator of interferon genes)是天然免疫信号通路中一种新发现的蛋白质,在防御病毒及胞内细菌感染、介导Ⅰ型IFN产生过程中发挥重要功能.来自病原体的B型DNA与5′-3p dsRNA暴露在宿主细胞中后被相应的模式识别受体识别,通过不同的通路传递信号给STING.STING随后通过相似的机制招募TBK1激活IRF3,诱导干扰素表达.对细菌中的环二核苷酸c-di-GMP和c-di-AMP,STING则可以直接作为模式识别受体引发Ⅰ型干扰素反应.此外STING还能激活STAT6诱导特异趋化因子产生,吸引各种免疫细胞抵抗病毒感染.本文通过对STING的发现、结构、定位、功能、机理以及调节机制进行综述,以期为揭示病毒逃逸天然免疫调节机制和抗病毒新型免疫调节剂提供新的思路.     

cGAS/STING通路的生物学功能及其在细菌感染中的作用北大核心

先天免疫是宿主抵御外来病原体入侵的第一道防线,而模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs)是介导先天免疫应答关键分子。PRRs通过识别病原体相关分子模式(pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)来激活宿主先天免疫反应。二十一世纪先天免疫领域里程碑式发现-环磷酸鸟苷腺苷合成酶(cyclic GMP-AMP synthase,cGAS),cGAS在宿主先天免疫过程中发挥重要作用,通过识别外源DNA产生第二信使2’,3’-环化鸟苷酸腺苷酸(2’,3’-cyclic guanosine monophosphate adenosine monophosphate,2’,3’-cGAMP)来介导干扰素基因刺激因子(stimulator of interferon genes,STING)的活化,从而促进下游干扰素(IFN)和其他细胞因子分泌来发挥宿主的抗病毒反应。近年研究发现,cGAS/STING通路在宿主抗细菌感染过程中发挥着重要作用,同时细菌也进化出不同机制来拮抗cGAS/STING通路。本文主要对cGAS/STING通路的生物学功能及其在细菌感染中的作用进行综述,为进一步研发新型抗菌药物提供理论参考。     

cGAS/STING信号通路参与猪圆环病毒2型诱导猪肺泡巨噬细胞产生Ⅰ型干扰素

为研究猪圆环病毒2型 (Porcine circovirus type 2,PCV2) 感染的猪肺泡巨噬细胞 (Porcine alveolar macrophages,PAMs) 分泌Ⅰ型干扰素信号通路,以PCV2病毒感染PAMs为研究对象,采用酶联免疫吸附测定 (Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay,ELISA)、实时荧光定量PCR和Western blotting,分析PCV2感染对PAMsⅠ型干扰素的诱导、cGAS/STING信号通路相关基因mRNA和蛋白表达的影响,并应用靶向cGAS和STING特异性siRNA、抑制剂BX795和BAY 11-7082,解析cGAS、STING、TBK1和NF-κB/P65在PAMs生成Ⅰ型干扰素中的作用。结果显示,PAMs感染PCV2病毒48 h后Ⅰ型干扰素的表达量显著升高 (P＜0.05),cGAS mRNA的表达量在感染48 h和72 h后显著升高 (P＜0.01),STING mRNA表达量在PCV2感染72 h后显著上升 (P＜0.01),TBK1 mRNA、IRF3 mRNA感染48 h后显著升高 (P＜0.01)。PCV2能够显著升高PAMs胞浆STING、TBK1和IRF3蛋白含量,降低胞浆NF-κB/p65的含量,促进NF-κB/p65和IRF3入核。敲低PAMs中cGAS或STING表达水平后,PCV2感染PAMs 48 h后,Ⅰ型干扰素的表达水平显著下降 (P＜0.01);BAX795抑制TBK1后,PCV2感染PAMs 48 hⅠ型干扰素的表达水平显著下降 (P＜0.01),BAY 11-7082 抑制NF-κB/P65表达后,PCV2感染PAMs 48 h I型干扰素的表达量与PCV2组相比无显著性差异 (P＞0.05)。结果表明,PAMs感染PCV2后通过cGAS/STING/TBK1/IRF3信号通路诱导Ⅰ型干扰素分泌。     

宿主识别与应答胞质内DNA入侵的信号转导机制

固有免疫是宿主防御病原微生物入侵的第一道防线。宿主通过胚系基因编码的模式识别受体(pathogen recognition receptor,PRR)监测微生物的病原相关分子模式(病毒核酸等),迅速启动免疫应答反应。宿主自身的核酸如果错误地出现在细胞质中,也会被模式识别受体识别,引发自身免疫疾病。STING(stimulator of interferon genes)是最近鉴定出的内质网接头蛋白,可以动态监控细胞内DNA以及环二核苷酸(cyclic dinucleotides,CDNs)的异常存在,发挥承上启下的抗微生物感染的枢纽功能。该文概述STING介导的细胞信号通路前沿进展,并对有待突破的科学问题作出展望。     

Cell Rep:科学家阐明治疗结直肠癌的新靶点

正近日,一项刊登在国际杂志Cell Reports上的研究论文中,来自迈阿密大学米勒医学院的研究人员通过对结直肠癌进行研究,报道了机体免疫反应对肿瘤产生反应的关键性研究发现,这项研究也首次详细地解释了干扰素基因刺激子(STING,stimulator of interferon genes)信号通路如何扮演重要的角色来改变机体对细胞转化的免疫反应。研究者Barber说道,我们都知道STING对于抗病毒及抗菌反应非常重要,但截止到目前为止,我们并不清楚STING在人类肿瘤中的功能,     

cGAMP：一种新的哺乳动物第二信使

在细菌中已发现多种环二核苷酸如c-di-GMP、c-di-AMP和cGAMP等可作第二信使,但在哺乳动物中一直未鉴定成功。最新研究发现cGAMP在哺乳动物天然免疫信号通路中也发挥着第二信使作用。在DNA结合条件下cGAMP可由cGAMP合成酶（cGAS）催化生成,随后结合干扰素基因激活蛋白（STING）而诱导Ⅰ型干扰素依赖的天然免疫。这些研究为天然免疫信号通路提供了新的视野,有益于免疫治疗药物的开发。     

非洲猪瘟病毒E248R蛋白抑制cGAS-STING介导的天然免疫

为了探究ASFV E248R蛋白调控cGAS-STING信号通路的机制,利用双荧光素酶报告系统验证ASFV E248R蛋白够剂量依赖性地抑制cGAS-STING和HT-DNA诱导的IFN-β的产生。通过相对定量PCR技术验证,过表达E248R抑制IFNB1、RANTES、IL-6和TNF-αβ基因的转录水平。免疫共沉淀和激光共聚焦试验结果表明,E248R与STING相互作用。通过蛋白印迹试验证实,过表达E248R可抑制STING的表达。研究表明ASFV E248R蛋白通过抑制STING的表达拮抗天然免疫应答。该结果将扩展对ASF免疫逃逸的认知,为疫苗的研制提供新的思路。     

中华鳖STING基因的克隆及功能分析

为了研究干扰素基因刺激因子STING在中华鳖(Pelodiscus sinensis)先天免疫中的作用, 克隆了中华鳖STING基因(PsSTING)的cDNA序列, 其全长为2145 bp, 包含1152 bp的开放阅读框, 编码383个氨基酸。氨基酸序列比对发现, PsSTING蛋白N端含有4个跨膜区和2个RXR内质网滞留基序, C端有1个解旋酶结构域。qRT-PCR结果显示, PsSTING在中华鳖心脏、肝脏、脾脏、肺、肾脏、小肠、胃、皮肤、肌肉和血细胞等组织中均能表达, 其中在脾脏中的表达量最高, 其次是肝脏、小肠和肺, 而在血细胞中的表达量最低; 用嗜水气单胞菌、LPS和poly(I:C)刺激后, PsSTING基因呈现出先上调后下调的趋势, 在刺激12h 时显著高于对照组(P＜0.05), 24h达到最高值, 在48h后逐渐恢复到初始水平, 其蛋白表达量在脾脏和小肠中明显增加。体内RNA干扰后, 小肠中PsSTING的表达量显著下调(P＜0.05), IFN信号通路中TBK1、IRF3、IRF7、STAT6和IFN-β等基因表达水平显著下调(P＜0.05)。在HEK293T细胞中过表达PsSTING基因, 能够显著激活pIFN-β-luc的启动子。研究结果表明PsSTING基因参与调控了中华鳖的先天免疫反应。     

Balancing STING in antimicrobial defense and autoinflammation

Rapid detection of microbes is crucial for eliciting an effective immune response. Innate immune receptors survey the intracellular and extracellular environment for signs of a microbial infection. When they detect a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), such as viral DNA, they alarm the cell about the ongoing infection. The central signaling hub in sensing of viral DNA is the stimulator of interferon genes (STING). Upon activation, STING induces downstream signaling events that ultimately result in the production of type I interferons (IFN I), important cytokines in antimicrobial defense, in particular towards viruses. In this review, we describe the molecular features of STING, including its upstream sensors and ligands, its sequence and structural conservation, common polymorphisms, and its localization. We further highlight how STING activation requires a careful balance: its activity is essential for antiviral defense, but unwanted activation through mutations or accidental recognition of self-derived DNA causes autoinflammatory diseases. Several mechanisms, such as post-translational modifications, ensure this balance by fine-tuning STING activation. Finally, we discuss how viruses evade detection of their genomes by either exploiting cells that lack a functional DNA sensing pathway as a niche or by interfering with STING activation through viral evasion molecules. Insight into STING’s exact mechanisms in health and disease will guide the development of novel clinical interventions for microbial infections, autoinflammatory diseases, and beyond.     

Alternative pathways driven by STING: From innate immunity to lipid metabolism

The Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING) is a major adaptor protein that is central to the initiation of type I interferon responses and proinflammatory signalling. STING-dependent signalling is triggered by the presence of cytosolic nucleic acids that are generated following pathogen infection or cellular stress. Beyond this central role in controlling immune responses through the production of cytokines and chemokines, recent reports have uncovered inflammation-independent STING functions. Amongst these, a rapidly growing body of evidence demonstrates a key role of STING in controlling metabolic pathways at several levels. Since immunity and metabolic homeostasis are tightly interconnected, these findings deepen our understanding of the involvement of STING in human pathologies. Here, we discuss these findings and reflect on their impact on our current understanding of how nucleic acid immunity controls homeostasis and promotes pathological outcomes.     

Innate immune sensing of nucleic acids from pathogens

The innate immune system is important as the first line of defense to sense invading pathogens. Nucleic acids represent critical pathogen signatures that trigger a host proinflammatory immune response. Much progress has been made in understanding how DNA and RNA trigger host defense countermeasures, however, several aspects of how cytosolic nucleic acids are sensed remain unclear. This special issue reviews how the host innate immune system senses nucleic acids from Brucella abortus, Mycobacterium sp and Legionella pneumophila, viral DNA, the role of STING in DNA sensing and inflammatory diseases and the mechanism of viral RNA recognition by the small interfering RNA pathway in Drosophila melanogaster.     

Mitochondrial DNA in the regulation of innate immune responses

Mitochondrion is known as the energy factory of the cell, which is also a unique mammalian organelle and considered to be evolved from aerobic prokaryotes more than a billion years ago. Mitochondrial DNA, similar to that of its bacterial ancestor’s, consists of a circular loop and contains significant number of unmethylated DNA as CpG islands. The innate immune system plays an important role in the mammalian immune response. Recent research has demonstrated that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) activates several innate immune pathways involving TLR9, NLRP3 and STING signaling, which contributes to the signaling platforms and results in effector responses. In addition to facilitating antibacterial immunity and regulating antiviral signaling, mounting evidence suggests that mtDNA contributes to inflammatory diseases following cellular damage and stress. Therefore, in addition to its well-appreciated roles in cellular metabolism and energy production, mtDNA appears to function as a key member in the innate immune system. Here, we highlight the emerging roles of mtDNA in innate immunity.     

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING): A “new chapter” in virus-associated cancer research. Lessons from wild-derived mouse models of innate immunity

Thanks to the numerous studies that have been carried out recently in the field of cytosolic DNA sensing, STING (Stimulator of Interferon Genes) is now recognized as a key mediator of innate immune signaling. A substantial body of evidence derived from in vivo mouse models demonstrates that STING-regulated pathways underlie the pathogenesis of many diseases including infectious diseases and cancers. It has also become evident from these studies that STING is a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of cancer. However, mouse strains commonly used for modelling innate immune response against infections or tumors do not allow investigators to accurately reproduce certain specific characteristics of immune response observed in human cells. In this review, we will discuss recent data demonstrating that the use of wild-derived genetically distinct inbred mice as a model for investigation into the innate immunity signaling networks may provide valuable insight into the STING-regulated pathways specific for human cells. The maximum complexity of STING-mediated mechanisms can probably be seen in case of DNA virus-induced carcinogenesis in which STING may perform unexpected biological activities. Therefore, in another part of this review we will summarize emerging data on the role of STING in human DNA virus-related oncopathologies, with particular attention to HPV-associated cervical cancer, aiming to demonstrate that STING indeed “starts a new chapter” in research on this issue and that wild-derived mouse models of STING-mediated response to infections will probably be helpful in finding out molecular basis for clinical observations.     

NET23/STING Promotes Chromatin Compaction from the Nuclear Envelope

Changes in the peripheral distribution and amount of condensed chromatin are observed in a number of diseases linked to mutations in the lamin A protein of the nuclear envelope. We postulated that lamin A interactions with nuclear envelope transmembrane proteins (NETs) that affect chromatin structure might be altered in these diseases and so screened thirty-one NETs for those that promote chromatin compaction as determined by an increase in the number of chromatin clusters of high pixel intensity. One of these, NET23 (also called STING, MITA, MPYS, ERIS, Tmem173), strongly promoted chromatin compaction. A correlation between chromatin compaction and endogenous levels of NET23/STING was observed for a number of human cell lines, suggesting that NET23/STING may contribute generally to chromatin condensation. NET23/STING has separately been found to be involved in innate immune response signaling. Upon infection cells make a choice to either apoptose or to alter chromatin architecture to support focused expression of interferon genes and other response factors. We postulate that the chromatin compaction induced by NET23/STING may contribute to this choice because the cells expressing NET23/STING eventually apoptose, but the chromatin compaction effect is separate from this as the condensation was still observed when cells were treated with Z-VAD to block apoptosis. NET23/STING-induced compacted chromatin revealed changes in epigenetic marks including changes in histone methylation and acetylation. This indicates a previously uncharacterized nuclear role for NET23/STING potentially in both innate immune signaling and general chromatin architecture.     

Quantitative Proteomics Identified TTC4 as a TBK1 Interactor and a Positive Regulator of SeV‐Induced Innate Immunity

TBK1, STING, and MDA5 are important players within the antiviral innate immune response network. We mapped the interactome of endogenous TBK1, STING, and MDA5 by affinity enrichment MS in virally infected or uninfected THP‐1 cells. Based on quantitative data of more than 2000 proteins and stringent statistical analysis, 58 proteins were identified as high‐confidence interactors for at least one of three bait proteins. Our data indicated that TBK1 and MDA5 mostly interacted within preexisting protein networks, while STING interacted with different proteins with different viral infections. Functional analysis was performed on 17 interactors, and six were found to have functions in innate immune responses. We identified TTC4 as a TBK1 interactor and positive regulator of sendai virus‐induced innate immunity.     

Attenuation of cGAS‐STING signaling is mediated by a p62/SQSTM1‐dependent autophagy pathway activated by TBK1

Negative regulation of immune pathways is essential to achieve resolution of immune responses and to avoid excess inflammation. DNA stimulates type I IFN expression through the DNA sensor cGAS, the second messenger cGAMP, and the adaptor molecule STING. Here, we report that STING degradation following activation of the pathway occurs through autophagy and is mediated by p62/SQSTM1, which is phosphorylated by TBK1 to direct ubiquitinated STING to autophagosomes. Degradation of STING was impaired in p62‐deficient cells, which responded with elevated IFN production to foreign DNA and DNA pathogens. In the absence of p62, STING failed to traffic to autophagy‐associated vesicles. Thus, DNA sensing induces the cGAS‐STING pathway to activate TBK1, which phosphorylates IRF3 to induce IFN expression, but also phosphorylates p62 to stimulate STING degradation and attenuation of the response.     

Binding of bacterial secondary messenger molecule c di-GMP is a STING operation

Initial skirmishes between the host and pathogen result in spillage of the contents of the bacterial cell. Amongst the spillage, the secondary messenger molecule, cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c di-GMP), was recently shown to be bound by stimulator of interferon genes (STING). Binding of c di-GMP by STING activates the Tank Binding Kinase (TBK1) mediated signaling cascades that galvanize the body' defenses for elimination of the pathogen. In addition to c di-GMP, STING has also been shown to function in innate immune responses against pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) originating from the DNA or RNA of pathogens. The pivotal role of STING in host defense is exemplified by the fact that STING^-/- mice die upon infection by HSV-1. Thus, STING plays an essential role in innate immune responses against pathogens. This opens up an exciting possibility of targeting STING for development of adjuvant therapies to boost the immune defenses against invading microbes. Similarly, STING could be targeted for mitigating the inflammatory responses augmented by the innate immune system. This review summarizes and updates our current understanding of the role of STING in innate immune responses and discusses the future challenges in delineating the mechanism of STING-mediated responses.     

An emerging role for calcium signalling in innate and autoimmunity via the cGAS-STING axis

Type I interferons are effector cytokines essential for the regulation of the innate immunity. A key effector of the type I interferon response that is dysregulated in autoimmunity and cancer is the cGAS-STING signalling axis. Recent work suggests that calcium and associated signalling proteins can regulate both cGAS-STING and autoimmunity. How calcium regulates STING activation is complex and involves both stimulatory and inhibitory mechanisms. One of these is calmodulin-mediated signalling that is necessary for STING activation. The alterations in calcium flux that occur during STING activation can also regulate autophagy, which in turn plays a role in innate immunity through the clearance of intracellular pathogens. Also connected to calcium signalling pathways is the cGAS inhibitor TREX1, a cytoplasmic exonuclease linked to several autoimmune diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In this review, we summarize these and other findings that indicate a regulatory role for calcium signalling in innate and autoimmunity through the cGAS-STING pathway.