水生无脊椎动物中的免疫球蛋白超家族

适应性免疫一直被认为是脊椎动物特有的免疫机制,然而近年来许多研究表明 ,无脊椎动物体内也存在许多在结构或功能上与脊椎动物适应性免疫分子类似的免 疫成分. 免疫球蛋白超家族是适应性免疫的重要组成部分,本文主要综述近年来关 于水生无脊椎动物中肌联蛋白、唐氏综合症细胞黏着分子、特异性凝集素、几丁质 结合蛋白和185/133基因家族以及含有V和C结构域的蛋白等免疫球蛋白超家族成员研 究进展,这有助于深入理解无脊椎动物的免疫系统并揭示脊椎动物适应性免疫起源 与进化.     

高等脊椎动物Toll样受体基因分子进化模式研究进展

Toll样受体是高等脊椎动物(包含无颌类到哺乳类)先天性免疫防卫系统中的必要元件,它们负责识别病原微生物,并最终引起宿主动物体内的免疫应答反应。通过研究TLR家族基因的遗传多样性是如何被保留和维持的,有利于了解动物免疫系统在病原微生物选择压力下的适应性进化。第2代测序技术的发展为TLR基因的分子进化模式提供了更丰富的资源。介绍TLR家族基因的结构及功能,着重于该受体基因在高等脊椎动物中的进化模式,从而揭示TLR家族基因在脊椎动物先天性免疫系统的适应性进化中的重要性,并进一步阐明宿主与病原微生物之间的协同进化模式。     

鱼类Toll样受体及其信号传导的研究进展

鱼类是脊椎动物中的一个重要类群, 在其生存与进化的过程中, 免疫系统担负着保护鱼类免受病原感染的重任, 其中Toll样受体家族等介导的先天性免疫是鱼类抗病免疫的第一道防线, 并在连接先天性免疫与获得性免疫反应中起着桥梁作用. 虽然从无脊椎动物到高等脊椎动物, Toll样受体家族内多数成员在蛋白质结构与功能上都较为保守, 但是鱼类作为最低等的脊椎动物, 在其进化过程中又形成了一些特有Toll样受体分子, 其剪接类型也更丰富; 鱼类Toll样受体家族介导的免疫识别、免疫信号传导、激活和调控方式与高等脊椎动物也不尽相同. 文章主要综述了鱼类Toll样受体的结构、种类、功能、多样性、免疫信号传导及其调控特点, 为深入了解鱼类的免疫反应奠定基础.       

动物生态学研究中免疫学参数的选择及其优缺点分析

脊椎动物通过免疫系统抵御外界不良环境条件的侵袭。如何发展出简单实用、稳定性好且易于操作的野外免疫学技术,并将其应用于动物生态学研究,是新兴学科——生态免疫学要解决的主要问题之一。本文以脊椎动物为例,结合生态免疫学的研究进展,介绍了一些应用较广的免疫学测定指标,概述了这些测定指标在野外研究中的优缺点,强调了免疫学指标体系间的复杂关系,建议在脊椎动物生态学研究中使用多层次的免疫学指标体系来度量动物体免疫功能的变化,在生态学和生活史进化的背景下理解免疫功能与其他生理活动或免疫系统内部的权衡关系,提出受所研究目标动物的物种特异性和野外操作条件的限制,多种免疫学参数的有效性尚需确证。     

四跨膜蛋白超家族tetraspanins的免疫功能研究进展

Tetraspanins属于四跨膜蛋白超家族（transmembrane 4 superfamily,TM4SF）,能跨膜连接蛋白,促进细胞间及细胞内信号转导,参与某些病毒的细胞识别和侵染．Tetraspanins成员之间相互关联,并与其他蛋白质形成一个巨大的tetmspanins网络,在免疫反应中发挥着重要作用．作为一大类进化上保守的细胞膜蛋白,它们在无脊椎动物中也行使复杂多样的功能．将重点阐述在tetraspanins的结构、识别病毒的机制、在免疫系统中的作用研究方面取得的进展,并对无脊椎动物tetraspanins在先天性免疫系统中的重要意义进行讨论．     

无颌类脊椎动物适应性免疫系统的进化

适应性免疫系统的起源与进化问题一直是人们研究的热点, 以七鳃鳗为代表的无颌类脊椎动物, 被普遍认为处在进化出适应性免疫系统的边缘。因此, 研究无颌类脊椎动物适应性免疫的机制, 对揭示适应性免疫系统的起源与进化具有重要意义。研究表明, 无颌类在一定范围内具有高等脊椎动物特有的适应性免疫特征, 并发现了一些在结构或功能上与高等脊椎动物免疫相关基因同源的免疫因子。文章就近年来对无颌类脊椎动物适应性免疫系统机制的研究进展作一概述, 为进一步深入研究脊椎动物适应性免疫系统的起源与进化提供有益的参考。     

无脊椎动物金属硫蛋白的研究

综述了近几十年来有关无脊椎动物金属硫蛋白（MT）的研究,包括软体动物MT、棘皮动物MT、环节动物MT、节肢动物MT（甲壳纲和昆虫纲）,分析了无脊椎动物MT与哺乳动物MT的异同,在此基础上,提出以下观点：即从无脊椎动物MT到哺乳动物MT的进化来看,动物MT的进化可能是一种趋同进化的模式。     

无脊椎动物的比较发育免疫(英文)

高等动物是由低等动物经过一个漫长的历程逐渐进化来的,其免疫机制也是伴随这一过程逐渐发展和完善起来的。免疫的进化不能象身体结构的进化一样可被化石记录下来;只能通过对现存动物的免疫机制、免疫组织及器官的个体发育和系统发育进行比较研究来搞清。近年来比较免疫学有了突飞猛进的发展,涉及的动物也越来越广泛,本文就已掌握的资料;对无脊椎动物的免疫机制、免疫组织及器官的个体发育和系统发育进行了比较和综述,从中可以看出,免疫机制普遍存在于无脊椎动物中,其免疫主要以吞噬作用、凝集作用和抗菌作用为主;免疫特异性较弱,细胞免疫的特异性远较体液免疫的特异性程度高;在较低等的腔肠动物就已出现了免疫记忆和移植排斥反应,并且在其后的无脊椎动物中广泛存在;凝集素广泛存在于无脊椎动物中,很可能在免疫识别甚至免疫记忆中扮演重要角色;无脊椎动物的免疫是随进化而逐渐加强的。     

文昌鱼抗金葡菌感染差减文库的构建及免疫相关基因分析

适应性免疫的起源一直是免疫学研究的关键问题.文昌鱼被认为是最接近于脊椎动物的祖先 自从被发现以来一直是研究脊椎动物起源与进化机制的经典模式动物.为了在文昌鱼中寻找适应性免疫系统的分子证据,采用金黄色葡萄球菌感染文昌鱼以调查免疫的起源.应用抑制性差减杂交(SSH)技术,通过对差减文库克隆序列的测定,共获得588个表达序列标签(EST).对这些EST进行生物信息学分析和进一步功能分类,发现了一些免疫上调基因,如免疫调控基因、凋亡相关基因、细胞黏附相关基因、转录相关基因、信号传导相关基因等,以及一些非免疫相关基因;这些基因在文昌鱼中绝大多数为首次报道.金黄色葡萄球菌差减文库的成功构建,为调查文昌鱼抗细菌感染的分子事件提供了重要线索,对于这些新发现基因的进一步研究将有助于深入了解免疫系统起源与进化的机制.     

天然免疫进化中的无脊椎动物Toll样受体

Toll样受体（Toll-like receptors,TLR）（或Toll）通过与各种病原相关分子模式（pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMP）的识别和特异结合,广泛参与各种天然免疫应答,目前已在线虫类、软体动物、节肢动物、棘皮动物及低等脊索类的后口动物等多种无脊椎动物中发现大量的TLR及同源蛋白.TLR在进化中高度保守,其功能随着动物进化中免疫机能的复杂化而多样化.这些研究成果将会不断加深对无脊椎动物天然免疫系统的起源、进化路线及其信号转导机制的认识.     

Reconstructing immune phylogeny: new perspectives

Numerous studies of the mammalian immune system have begun to uncover profound interrelationships, as well as fundamental differences, between the adaptive and innate systems of immune recognition. Coincident with these investigations, the increasing experimental accessibility of non-mammalian jawed vertebrates, jawless vertebrates, protochordates and invertebrates has provided intriguing new information regarding the likely patterns of emergence of immune-related molecules during metazoan phylogeny, as well as the evolution of alternative mechanisms for receptor diversification. Such findings blur traditional distinctions between adaptive and innate immunity and emphasize that, throughout evolution, the immune system has used a remarkably extensive variety of solutions to meet fundamentally similar requirements for host protection.     

Molecular evolution of the NF-κB signaling system

The mechanisms of innate immunity in vertebrates show certain overall resemblances to immune mechanisms of insects. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain these resemblances. (1) According to the evolutionary continuity hypothesis, innate immune mechanisms evolved in the common ancestor of vertebrates and insects and have been conserved since that time. (2) In the independent-evolution hypothesis, the mechanisms of innate immunity in vertebrates evolved independently from invertebrate immune mechanisms. Phylogenetic analysis of five gene families (Pelle, Rel, IkappaB, Toll, and TRAF) whose members are involved in NF-kappaB signaling in vertebrates and insects were used to decide between these hypotheses. The phylogenies of the Rel and TRAF families strongly supported independent evolution of immune functions in vertebrates and invertebrates, and, except for a possible case in the Pelle family, orthologous molecules having immune functions in both vertebrates and invertebrates were not found. The results suggest that NF-kappaB represents an ancient, generalized signaling system that has been co-opted for immune system roles independently in vertebrate and insect lineages.     

The immune gene repertoire encoded in the purple sea urchin genome

Echinoderms occupy a critical and largely unexplored phylogenetic vantage point from which to infer both the early evolution of bilaterian immunity and the underpinnings of the vertebrate adaptive immune system. Here we present an initial survey of the purple sea urchin genome for genes associated with immunity. An elaborate repertoire of potential immune receptors, regulators and effectors is present, including unprecedented expansions of innate pathogen recognition genes. These include a diverse array of 222 Toll-like receptor (TLR) genes and a coordinate expansion of directly associated signaling adaptors. Notably, a subset of sea urchin TLR genes encodes receptors with structural characteristics previously identified only in protostomes. A similarly expanded set of 203 NOD/NALP-like cytoplasmic recognition proteins is present. These genes have previously been identified only in vertebrates where they are represented in much lower numbers. Genes that mediate the alternative and lectin complement pathways are described, while gene homologues of the terminal pathway are not present. We have also identified several homologues of genes that function in jawed vertebrate adaptive immunity. The most striking of these is a gene cluster with similarity to the jawed vertebrate Recombination Activating Genes 1 and 2 (RAG1/2). Sea urchins are long-lived, complex organisms and these findings reveal an innate immune system of unprecedented complexity. Whether the presumably intense selective processes that molded these gene families also gave rise to novel immune mechanisms akin to adaptive systems remains to be seen. The genome sequence provides immediate opportunities to apply the advantages of the sea urchin model toward problems in developmental and evolutionary immunobiology.     

Innate immunity against viruses

Viruses are obligate parasites which are able to infect cells of all living organisms. Multiple antiviral defense mechanisms have appeared early in evolution of the immune system. Higher vertebrates have the most complex antiviral immunity which is based on both innate and adoptive immune responses. However, majority of living organisms, including plants and invertebrates, rely exclusively on innate immune mechanisms for protection against viral infections. There are some striking similarities in several components of the innate immune recognition between mammals, plants and insects, rendering these signaling cascades as highly conserved in the evolution of the immune system. This review summarizes recent advances in the field of innate immune recognition of viruses, with particular interest on pattern-recognition receptors.     

Evolution of the lectin-complement pathway and its role in innate immunity

Discrimination between self and non-self by lectins (carbohydrate-binding proteins) is a strategy of innate immunity that is found in both vertebrates and invertebrates. In vertebrates, immune recognition mediated by ficolins (lectins that consist of a fibrinogen-like and a collagen-like domain), as well as by mannose-binding lectins, triggers the activation of the complement system, which results in the activation of novel serine proteases. The presence of a similar lectin-based complement system in ascidians, our closest invertebrate relatives, indicates that the complement system probably had a pivotal role in innate immunity before the evolution of an adaptive immune system in jawed vertebrates.     

Innate mechanisms of viral recognition

Viruses are obligate parasites which can infect cells of all living organisms. Multiple antiviral defense mechanisms appeared early in the evolution of the immune system. Higher vertebrates possess the most complex antiviral immunity based on both innate and adoptive immune responses. However, a majority of living organisms, including plants and invertebrates, rely exclusively on innate immune mechanisms for protection against viral infections. There are some striking similarities in several components of innate immune recognition in mammals, plants, and insects suggesting that these signaling cascades are highly conserved in the evolution of the immune system. This review summarizes recent advances in the field of innate immune recognition of viruses, with a focus on pattern-recognition receptors.     

Comparative immunological analysis of echinoderm cellular and humoral defense factors

Coelomocyte are found in the fluid filling coelomic cavity of echinoderms and depending on species can be a mixture of several morphologically different types. There are among them: granular and agranular amoebocytes, morula cells, vibratile and lymphocyte-like cells. All these cells take part in cellular response to immune challenges through phagocytosis, clotting, encapsulation of foreign particles, cytotoxicity, and the production of antimicrobial agents, such as reactive oxygen and nitric oxide. The data are given on a variety of humoral factors found in the coelomic fluid, including different types of lectines, agglutinins, hemolysins, acute phase proteins and antimicrobial factors. The discussion on cooperation between cellular and humoral arms of defense reactions during inflammation reveals the crucial role of coelomocytes in immune response. It is suggested that the sea urchin complement system (that is homologous to the alternative pathway in vertebrates) is appeared initially in echinoderms as a protein cascade that points to opsonization of foreign cells and particles, augmenting their phagocytosis and subsequent destruction by coelomocytes. So the identification of a simple complement system as a part of the echinoderm immune response shows that these animals as well as all invertebrate deuterostomes share innate immune system homologies with vertebrates. Studying the simpler immune response demonstrated by echinoderms is important for understanding the ancestral deuterostome defense system and reconstructing the evolution of immune system in higher vertebrates.     

Life is a huge compromise: Is the complexity of the vertebrate immune-neuroendocrine system an advantage or the price to pay?

Recent advances in comparative immunology have established that invertebrates produce hypervariable molecules probably related to immunity, suggesting the possibility of raising a specific immune response. “Priming” and “tailoring” are terms now often associated with the invertebrate innate immunity. Comparative immunologists contributed to eliminate the idea of a static immune system in invertebrates, making necessary to re-consider the evolutive meaning of immunological memory of vertebrates. If the anticipatory immune system represents a maximally efficient immune system, why can it be observed only in vertebrates, especially in consideration that molecular hypervariability exists also in invertebrates? Using well-established theories concerning the evolution of the vertebrate immunity as theoretical basis we analyze from an Eco-immunology-based perspective why a memory-based immune system may have represented an evolutive advantage for jawed vertebrates. We hypothesize that for cold-blooded vertebrates memory represents a complimentary component that flanks the robust and fundamental innate immunity. Conversely, immunological memory has become indispensable and fully exploited in warm-blooded vertebrates, due to their stable inner environment and high metabolic rate, respectively.     

Two arms are better than one: parasite variation leads to combined inducible and constitutive innate immune responses

Parasites represent a major threat to all organisms which has led to the evolution of an array of complex and effective defence mechanisms. Common to both vertebrates and invertebrates are innate immune mechanisms that can be either constitutively expressed or induced on exposure to infection. In nature, we find that a combination of both induced and constitutive responses are employed by vertebrates, invertebrates and, to an extent, plants when they are exposed to a parasite. Here we use a simple within-host model motivated by the insect immune system, consisting of both constitutive and induced responses, to address the question of why both types of response are maintained so ubiquitously. Generally, induced responses are thought to be advantageous because they are only used when required but are too costly to maintain constantly, while constitutive responses are advantageous because they are always ready to act. However, using a simple cost function but with no a priori assumptions about relative costs, we show that variability in parasite growth rates selects for a strategy that combines both constitutive and induced defences. Differential costs are therefore not necessary to explain the adoption of both forms of defence. Clearly, hosts are likely to be challenged by variable parasites in nature and this is sufficient to explain why it is optimal to deploy both arms of the innate immune system.