Isolation of autochthonous non-white rot fungi with potential for enzymatic upgrading of Venezuelan extra-heavy crude oil

The increasing world demand for fuels makes it necessary to exploit the largest reserve of extra-heavy crude oil (EHCO) of the Orinoco Oil Belt from Venezuela. We propose the use of extracellular oxidative enzymes, in particular, lignin-degrading enzyme systems (LDS) of fungi, for enzymatic improvement of EHCO. Autochthonous non-white rot fungal strains able to use EHCO, and several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as sole carbon source and energy, were isolated from EHCO-polluted soils and identified as belonging to the genera Fusarium, Penicillium , Trichoderma , Aspergillus , Neosartorya, Pseudallescheria, Cladosporium, Pestalotiopsis , Phoma and Paecillomyces. Phenotypic and biochemical assays revealed the ability of these filamentous fungi to synthesize extracellular oxidative enzymes, and suggested a relationship between the LDS and EHCO bioconversion. This work reports, for the first time, the use of o-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (OPD) as substrate to measure extracellular ligninolytic peroxidases (ELP) in culture broths of filamentous fungi (Fusarium solani HP-1), and constitutes the first formal study of the fungal community associated with the EHCO of the Orinoco Oil Belt.     

Isolation of autochthonous non-white rot fungi with potential for enzymatic upgrading of Venezuelan extra-heavy crude oil

The increasing world demand for fuels makes it necessary to exploit the largest reserve of extra-heavy crude oil (EHCO) of the Orinoco Oil Belt from Venezuela. We propose the use of extracellular oxidative enzymes, in particular, lignin-degrading enzyme systems (LDS) of fungi, for enzymatic improvement of EHCO. Autochthonous non-white rot fungal strains able to use EHCO, and several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as sole carbon source and energy, were isolated from EHCO-polluted soils and identified as belonging to the genera Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Neosartorya, Pseudallescheria, Cladosporium, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma and Paecillomyces. Phenotypic and biochemical assays revealed the ability of these filamentous fungi to synthesize extracellular oxidative enzymes, and suggested a relationship between the LDS and EHCO bioconversion. This work reports, for the first time, the use of o-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (OPD) as substrate to measure extracellular ligninolytic peroxidases (ELP) in culture broths of filamentous fungi (Fusarium solani HP-1), and constitutes the first formal study of the fungal community associated with the EHCO of the Orinoco Oil Belt.     

Production of aryl metabolites in solid-state fermentations of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta

Bjerkandera adusta produced aromatic compounds such as benzaldehyde (bitter almond aroma), benzyl alcohol and benzoic acid from L-phenylalanine (3 g kg^–1). Two supports for the fungus, wheat bran (organic support) and Perlite (mineral support), gave optimal production with water contents of 66% and 60%, respectively. Benzyl alcohol (4.53 g kg^–1) and benzaldehyde (1.56 g kg^–1) were produced after 4 days on wheat bran respectively with 20 and 30 g L-phenylalanine kg^–1. Aryl alcohol oxidase activity, which oxidises benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde, was only detected when the fungus was grown on wheat bran, the support which promotes the most benzaldehyde production. Results are compared with those obtained in submerged liquid cultures.     

Linoleic acid peroxidation initiated by Fe-reducing compounds recovered from Eucalyptus grandis biotreated with Ceriporiopsis subvermispora

This work evaluates linoleic acid peroxidation reactions initiated by Fe³⁺-reducing compounds recovered from Eucalyptus grandis, biotreated with the biopulping fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora. The aqueous extracts from biotreated wood had the ability to reduce Fe³⁺ ions from freshly prepared solutions. The compounds responsible for the Fe³⁺-reducing activity corresponded to UV-absorbing substances with apparent molar masses from 3 kDa to 5 kDa. Linoleic acid peroxidation reactions conducted in the presence of Fe³⁺ ions and the Fe³⁺-reducing compounds showed that the rate of O₂ consumption during peroxidation was proportional to the Fe³⁺-reducing activity present in each extract obtained from biotreated wood. This peroxidation reaction was coupled with in-vitro treatment of ball-milled E. grandis wood. Ultraviolet data showed that the reaction system released lignin fragments from the milled wood. Size exclusion chromatography data indicated that the solubilized material contained a minor fraction representing high-molar-mass molecules excluded by the column and a main low-molar-mass peak. Overall evaluation of the data suggested that the Fe³⁺-reducing compounds formed during wood biodegradation by C. subvermispora can mediate lignin degradation through linoleic acid peroxidation.     

白腐菌在两种固体基质上的漆酶产量及同工酶活性比较研究

一株新分离的白腐菌Z1可在两种农业废弃物(麸皮和稻草秸杆)基质上生长并分泌漆酶,其中在麸皮基质上的漆酶产量比在稻草秸杆基质上的漆酶产量高出10倍左右,同时活性电泳显示Z1菌在麸皮基质上可产生3条漆酶同工酶,比在稻草秸杆基质上多1条,其活性也比在稻草秸杆基质中的漆酶活性高。     

Endocellulase Production by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cotylidia pannosa</Emphasis> and its Application in Saccharification of Wheat Bran to Bioethanol

For efficient bioconversion of lignocellulosic materials to bioethanol, the study screened 19 white-rot fungal strains for their endocellulolytic activity and saccharification potential. Preliminary qualitative and quantitative screening revealed Cotylidia pannosa to be the most efficient endocellulase producing fungal strain when compared to the standard strain of Trichoderma reesei MTCC 164. Ensuing initial screening, the production of endocellulase was further optimized using submerged fermentation to recognize process parameters such as temperature, time, agitation pH, and supplementation of salts in media required for achieving maximum production of endocellulase. The strain C. pannosa produced the maximum amount of endocellulase (8.48 U/mL) under submerged fermentation with wheat bran (2%) supplemented yeast extract peptone dextrose (YEPD) medium after an incubation time of 56 h at 30 °C and pH 5.0 at an agitation rate of 120 rpm with a saccharification value of 50.5%. The fermentation of wheat bran hydrolysate with Saccharomyces cerevisiae MTCC 174 produced 4.12 g/L of bioethanol after 56 h of incubation at 30 °C. The results obtained from the present investigation establish the potential of white-rot fungus C. pannosa for hydrolysis and saccharification of wheat bran to yield fermentable sugars for their subsequent conversion to bioethanol, suggesting its application in efficient bioprocessing of lignocellulosic wastes.     

Biokraft pulping of European black pine with Ceriporiopsis subvermispora

European black pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) chips were treated with the white-rot fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora for periods ranging from 20 to 100 days. The effects of pretreatment on the chemical composition of wood and kraft pulping were investigated. The results showed that fungal pretreatment reduced the lignin and extractive content of wood chips. Also, weight losses occurred. Kappa number, viscosity, and reject ratio of biokraft pulps decreased. Biokraft pulps gave better response to beating, which led to significant energy saving during refining. The tear index, burst index, and tensile index of biokraft pulps were found to be lower than those of kraft pulps. However, the tensile index and burst index of 20-day biotreated and unbeaten pulp was higher than those of kraft pulp. Also, the tear index of 20-day biotreated and beaten pulp was higher than that of kraft pulp. The brightness of biokraft pulps decreased irregularly with increasing incubation time.     

Culture conditions of Aspergillus oryzae for production of enzyme preparation

Submerged culture was better than solid culture in the production of proteinase and peptidases from Aspergillus oryzae 460. On the contrary, solid culture was better than submerged culture in the production of α-amylase, carboxymethyl cellulase, and pectinlyase from the same fungus.The soy souce mash (moromi) made with the enzyme preparation from submerged culture was highly viscous and the soy sauce produced was characteristic in low contents of alcohol and reducing sugar, low pH value, and less aroma. Soy sauce made with the enzyme preparation from solid culture was superior on these points to that from submerged culture.Wheat bran was best as the raw material for the enzyme preparation in easy koji making, large amount produced, and low cost.In enzyme production from a solid culture, addition of urea (0.8% to wheat bran) nearly doubled the leucine aminopeptidase for Leu-Gly-Gly. The incubation period was reduced to 30 to 40 h from 50 to 60 h using germinated spores and moisture-controlled culture with forced aeration.     

Teratorhabditis palmarum n. sp. (Nemata: Rhabditidae): An Associate of Rhynchophorus palmarum and R. cruentatus

Teratorhabditis palmarum n. sp., an associate of the palm weevils Rhynchophorus palmarum and R. cruentatus is described. Teratorhabditis palmarum was isolated from newly emerged adults and cocoons of R. palmarum from red-ring diseased coconut palms, Cocos nucifera, in Trinidad and Ecuador, and from red-ring diseased oil palms, Elaeis guineensis, in Colombia. Teratorhabditis palmarum was also associated internally with newly emerged adults of R. cruentatus from mature transplanted cabbage palmettos, Sabal palmetto, in Florida. Dauer juveniles of T. palmarum infested the genital capsule and body cavity of newly emerged adult female and male palm weevils. Adult nematodes isolated from cocoons and dauer juveniles from newly emerged palm weevils were cuhurable on bacterial lawns on several solid media. Females of T. palmarum have a single anteriorly directed ovary; vulva at 93-96% of the body length; short, hemispherical spicate tail; three or four teeth in the metastom; cuticle with distinct transverse punctations that change abruptly at the level of the procorpus to indentations of alternating size and arrangement; and eggs with cuticular sculpturing. Males have a crenate, peloderan bursa with a 2 + 5 + 3 pattern of bursal rays (7 extend to the margin of bursa); spicules linear, completely fused at the distal tip and dorsally for 50% of the total spicule length.     

Spectral studies of Amaranthus tristis Linn. in Bioremediated Silk dyeing effluent with mixed biofertilizer inoculants

Microbial degradation as a treatment, with the combination of mixed inoculants of the Biofertilizer of Pseudomonas sp., Azospirillium sp. and Rhizobium sp., was employed for the remediation of Silk dyeing effluent. Remediating studies was undertaken to assess the feasibility of the mixed biofertilizer inoculant source for degradation of the Azodye effluent from the Silk dyeing Industry. The Green leafy vegetable (GLV), Amaranthus tristis Linn used as investigational prototypical plant species is selected for examining the phytochemicals, functional groups and its compounds grown in the effluent and biotreated environment and compared. The laboratory scale investigation showed that leaves, stem and root of the Amaranthus tristis Linn was qualitatively analysed for 20 phytochemicals which was grown in the different treatments of raw effluent and the biotreated effluent and the results showed the phytochemicals on the effluent’s influence reduced from strong positive to trace amounts while recovered on the biotreated environment. The FTIR analysis of the GLV grown in effluent and biotreated environments on comparison resulted in the functional group Alkene rescued in the biotreated effluent environment compared to the effluent contaminated area. The HPLC analysis of methanolic extracts of A. tristis grown in fresh water has 6 peaks of retention time of 2.6, 3, 3.9, 4, 4.2, and 4.6 RT whereas GLV effluent had only one peak of retention time of 4.1 RT. In the GLV from biotreated environment have 4 peaks were found with the maximum percentage area of 95.2% which proves that the compounds are rescued in the biotreated environment and few active compounds were confirmed in GCMS analysis. The Soil analysis results also indicate that the biotreatment of mixed inoculant of biofertilizers in the biotreated soil had influence resulting in improved levels of Ca, N, P and K with 114, 213, 10.5, 268 kg/ha respectively in the mixed inoculant biotreated soil. Similarly the micronutrients suchas Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn ranges to 4.1, 20.22, 2.13, 1.13 ppm respectively in the mixed inoculant biotreated soil within the optimal range. The study revealed that mixed biofertilizer inoculant has the recovery effect on the Silk dyeing (Azodyes) effluents effective reducing the pollutant capacity thereby meeting the discharged standards.     

Wheat bran biodegradation by Pleurotus ostreatus: a solid-state carbon-13 NMR study

Solid-state (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and elemental analysis techniques were used to monitor the degradation of wheat bran by the white-rot fungus Pleurotus ostreatus during a 62-day cultivation period. The weight loss and in vitro organic matter digestibility of the substrate were also evaluated after fungal treatment. The (13)C NMR spectra of degraded wheat bran samples showed a lower content in carbohydrates and a higher content in aliphatic and carboxylic groups than the untreated control sample. In parallel, changes in the wheat bran elemental composition evidenced a decrease in carbon content and a concomitant increase in nitrogen and oxygen content during mycelium growth. These results clearly indicate the occurrence of progressive changes in the composition of wheat bran during fungal treatment and are interpreted in terms of preferential degradation of amorphous vs. crystalline polysaccharides by the fungal mycelium and accumulation of proteins in the substrate. At the end of the cultivation period, the treated samples experienced an average weight loss of 20% and an increase in organic matter digestibility of 17%.     

Ferulic Acid Esterase Activity from Schizophyllum commune

Schizophyllum commune produced an esterase which released ferulic acid from starch-free wheat bran and from a soluble ferulic acid-sugar ester that was isolated from wheat bran. The preferred growth substrate for the production of ferulic acid esterase was cellulose. Growth on xylan-containing substrates (oat spelt xylan and starch-free wheat bran) resulted in activity levels that were significantly lower than those observed in cultures grown on cellulose. Similar observations were made for endoglucanase, p-nitrophenyllactopyranosidase, xylanase, and acetyl xylan esterase. Of the enzymes studied, only arabinofuranosidase was produced at maximum levels during growth on xylan-containing materials. Ferulic acid esterase that had been partially purified by DEAE chromatography released significant amounts of ferulic acid from wheat bran only in the presence of a xylanase-rich fraction, indicating that the esterase may not be able to readily attack high-molecular-weight substrates. The esterase acted efficiently, without xylanase addition, on a soluble sugar-ferulic acid substrate.     

Production of cell wall-degrading enzymes by a pH tolerant estuarine fungal isolate <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium moniliforme</Emphasis> NCIM1276 in different culture conditions

A pH tolerant strain of Fusarium moniliforme NCIM1276 with a saprophytic mode of nutrition was isolated from a coastal estuarine environment. Under laboratory conditions, the fungus produced significant biomass between pH 3 and 9, and produced cell wall degrading enzymes such as pectinases (polygalacturonase and pectate lyase), carboxymethylcellulase, xylanase and amylase. The production of these enzymes by the isolate in liquid medium, semi-solid medium and in infected tomato and cauliflower plants tissue was investigated. In liquid medium, the production of cell wall-degrading enzymes was induced by appropriate substrates, whereas the organism secreted all enzymes constitutively on wheat bran. The production of polygalacturonase, pectate lyase, carboxymethylcellulase, xylanase and amylase was increased by 3, 2, 11, 10 and 4-fold respectively on semi-solid medium containing wheat bran and orange pulp. Moreover when the fungus was allowed to infect tomato and cauliflower plants, the fungus was localized in the cortical tissues of the plants and secreted pectinases, carboxymethylcellulase and xylanase enzymes in the infected host tissue.     

Cloning and Characterization of a Weissella confusa Dextransucrase and Its Application in High Fibre Baking

Wheat bran offers health benefits as a baking ingredient, but is detrimental to bread textural quality. Dextran production by microbial fermentation improves sourdough bread volume and freshness, but extensive acid production during fermentation may negate this effect. Enzymatic production of dextran in wheat bran was tested to determine if dextran-containing bran could be used in baking without disrupting bread texture. The Weissella confusa VTT E-90392 dextransucrase gene was sequenced and His-tagged dextransucrase Wc392-rDSR was produced in Lactococcus lactis. Purified enzyme was characterized using ¹⁴C-sucrose radioisotope and reducing value-based assays, the former yielding K _m and V _max values of 14.7 mM and 8.2 μmol/(mg∙min), respectively, at the pH optimum of 5.4. The structure and size of in vitro dextran product was similar to dextran produced in vivo. Dextran (8.1% dry weight) was produced in wheat bran in 6 h using Wc392-rDSR. Bran with and without dextran was used in wheat baking at 20% supplementation level. Dextran presence improved bread softness and neutralized bran-induced volume loss, clearly demonstrating the potential of using dextransucrases in bran bioprocessing for use in baking.     

Metabolism of Ferulic Acid by Paecilomyces variotii and Pestalotia palmarum

Ferulic acid metabolism was studied in cultures of two micromycetes producing different amounts of phenol oxidases. In cultures of the low phenol oxidase producer Paecilomyces variotii, ferulic acid was decarboxylated to 4-vinylguaiacol, which was converted to vanillin and then either oxidized to vanillic acid or reduced to vanillyl alcohol. Vanillic acid underwent simultaneously an oxidative decarboxylation to methoxyhydroquinone and a nonoxidative decarboxylation to guaiacol. Methoxyhydroquinone and guaiacol were demethylated to yield hydroxyquinol and catechol, respectively. Catechol was hydroxylated to pyrogallol. Degradation of ferulic acid by Paecilomyces variotii proceeded mainly via methoxyhydroquinone. The high phenol oxidase producer Pestalotia palmarum catabolized ferulic acid via 4-vinylguaiacol, vanillin, vanillyl alcohol, vanillic acid, and methoxyhydroquinone. However, the main reactions observed with this fungus involved polymerization reactions.     

Enzymatic production of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine by solid state fermentation of chitinase by Penicillium ochrochloron MTCC 517 using agricultural residues

The optimization studies for production of chitinase were carried out by response surface methodology (RSM) based on statistics experimental design using three substrates, which were wheat, rice and red gram bran. 2⁴ full factorial central composite design was applied to evaluate optimal combinations of variables. These variables were chitin concentration, initial moisture content, inoculum level, and incubation time. The results of second order polynomial showed that all four variables had significant effect on chitinase production. Maximum chitinase activity was recorded for wheat bran (2443.23 U g⁻¹) than rice (1216.65 U g⁻¹) and red gram bran (961.32 U g⁻¹). An overall 3-fold increase in chitinase activity was achieved using optimized strategies of RSM. Growth of the fungus on all bran particles have been visualized by scanning electron microscopy. These results indicated the potential of Penicillium ochrochloron for economical production of chitinase using agricultural residues. TLC and HPLC analysis of colloidal chitin hydrolysate with partially purified chitinases revealed that the major reaction product was monomeric GlcNAc indicating the potential of these enzymes for efficient production of GlcNAc.     

Biocontrol of Damping-off Diseases Caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum with Alginate Prills of Gliocladium virens, Trichoderma hamatum and Various Food Bases

Alginate prills were formulated with the biomass of isolates of Gliocladium virens and Trichoderma spp. and various food bases (wheat bran, corn cobs, peanut hulls, soy fiber, castor pomace, cocoa hulls and chitin). Alginate prills with G. virens (Gl-21) biomass and all food bases except cocoa hull meal significantly reduced the damping-off of zinnia in a soil-less mix caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum. The prills with bran, soy fiber, castor pomace or chitin resulted in stands similar to those in the non-infested control. In soil, prills with all the food bases and Thrichoderma hamatum (TRI-4) biomass controlled the damping-off of cotton caused by R. solani and gave stands comparable to, or better than, those in the non-infested control soil. Prills with all the food bases resulted in a proliferation of Gl-21 in a soil-less mix and of Gl-21 and TRI-4 in soil. Prills with food bases and TRI-4 biomass reduced the survival of R. solani in infested beet seed to less than 30%, with bran and chitin being the most effective food bases; prills with Gl-21 biomass and all food bases also reduced the survival of R. solani in beet seed, but not as much as did prills with TRI-4 biomass. In prills containing wheat bran, soy fiber or chitin, the biocontrol isolate Th-58 (T. harzianum) was almost as effective as TRI-4, but isolate Gl-3 (G. virens) was less effective. There was no significant interaction between the biocontrol fungus and the food base. The results suggest that the intrinsic properties of a selected fungus isolate are more important than some formulation variables in biocontrol.     

Oxalic acid, Fe-reduction activity and oxidative enzymes detected in culture extracts recovered from Pinus taeda wood chips biotreated by Ceriporiopsis subvermispora

Pinus taeda wood chips were treated with the biopulping fungus, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, under solid-state fermentation for periods varying from 7 to 90 days. Low molecular mass compounds and oxidative enzymes were extracted from biotreated wood samples. Manganese-dependent peroxidase was the main oxidative enzyme on all biodegradation periods. Aqueous extracts from biotreated wood presented decreasing pH values, oxalic acid being the major organic acid secreted by the fungus. Analysis of these extracts by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) revealed small amounts of fatty acids, several short-chain organic acids (C3–C6) and numerous sugar derivatives. 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzaldehyde, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid and tricarboxy-benzene were also found in the wood extracts. A remarkable characteristic of the wood extracts was a strong Fe³⁺-reducing ability. High Fe³⁺-reducing activity and high catechol concentrations were detected in the wood extracts from the undecayed control. This reducing activity and catechol concentrations decreased during the first 7 days of biodegradation. However, from the seventh day of culturing, catechol derivatives coming from lignin degradation start to accumulate in the cultures and Fe³⁺-reduction activity increased again. The Fe³⁺-reduction activity observed in the wood extracts indicates that Fe²⁺ would be available in solution during the wood decay process. Considering that Fe²⁺ and H₂O₂ (produced by this fungus based on MnP-degradation of oxalate) were present in the wood extracts, at least some extent for degradation reactions based on Fenton-chemistry, similarly to the observed in brown-rot fungi, is supposed to occur during wood decay by C. subvermispora.     

卵孢小奥德蘑驯化栽培、营养成分及抗氧化活性

卵孢小奥德蘑是一种珍贵的食药用真菌。本研究选用果渣、酒糟与菌糠为部分替代料,采用正交试验优化了野生卵孢小奥德蘑的母种、原种及栽培料配方,并测定了栽培子实体的含水量、蛋白质、总糖、维生素C、多酚含量及醇提物对DPPH、ABTs⁺及羟基自由基的清除能力。结果表明,最佳母种培养基配方为麦麸35 g/L、葡萄糖20 g/L、磷酸氢二钾3.5 g/L、硫酸镁2 g/L和琼脂20 g/L,确定了葡萄糖与磷酸氢二钾是影响菌丝生长的重要因素;最优原种培养基配方为果渣45%、豆秸20%、麦麸15%、石灰3%、石膏1%和刺芹侧耳菌糠16%,在培养基中添加果渣能够显著促进卵孢小奥德蘑原种菌丝的生长;最佳栽培料配方为酒糟35%、棉籽壳30%、麦麸20%、石灰1%、石膏1%和玉米芯13%,酒糟对子实体产量的影响达到了显著水平;卵孢小奥德蘑的营养成分显示其富含蛋白质、糖类、维生素C及多酚,由9种配方栽培出的子实体中最高含量可分别达到42.78 g/100 g、23.54 g/100 g、4.02 mg/100 g及4.19 mg/g,且栽培料的不同组分及用量对其营养物质的含量具有显著差异。此外,卵孢小奥德蘑的醇提物具有较强的抗氧化能力且随着用量的增加抗氧化活性增强,当用量为150、40和250 μL时配方Z1对DPPH和ABTs⁺及配方Z2对羟基自由基的清除能力可分别达到88.64%、99.81%和93.48%,本研究结果为卵孢小奥德蘑的栽培、生理活性、药理研究及进一步的开发利用提供理论依据。     

Fertility Life Table of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus palmarum</Emphasis> Flechtmann &amp; Noronha (Acari: Tetranychidae) in Oil Palm

Some species of spider mites belonging to the Tetranychidae family are known to associate with oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq. – Arecaceae). The occurrence of Tetranychus palmarum Flechtmann & Noronha (Acari, Tetranychidae) was verified on oil palm seedlings under greenhouse conditions in the State of Pará in Northern Brazil. Plants with colonies of T. palmarum presented yellowish spots on leaflets and leaves with chlorosis. The objective of this study was to access the biology and fertility life table of T. palmarum in E. guineensis leaves. The experiment was conducted under four constant temperatures, 22, 25, 28, and 31°C, at 70 ± 10% RH under a 12:12 LD photoperiod. The duration of the egg-to-adult period was 18.4 and 9.8 days, at 22 and 31°C, respectively. The parameters of the fertility life table showed that 28°C is most suitable for the development and reproduction of T. palmarum, with higher values for reproductive parameters (R _o , r _m , and λ) and lower values for duplicating the population (TD). Therefore, it is apparent that the best temperature conditions for the development of T. palmarum are found in the warmer regions of Brazil, such as those observed in northern Brazil.