Mangrove growth in New Zealand estuaries: the role of nutrient enrichment at sites with contrasting rates of sedimentation

Mangrove forest coverage is increasing in the estuaries of the North Island of New Zealand, causing changes in estuarine ecosystem structure and function. Sedimentation and associated nutrient enrichment have been proposed to be factors leading to increases in mangrove cover, but the relative importance of each of these factors is unknown. We conducted a fertilization study in estuaries with different sedimentation histories in order to determine the role of nutrient enrichment in stimulating mangrove growth and forest development. We expected that if mangroves were nutrient-limited, nutrient enrichment would lead to increases in mangrove growth and forest structure and that nutrient enrichment of trees in our site with low sedimentation would give rise to trees and sediments that converged in terms of functional characteristics on control sites in our high sedimentation site. The effects of fertilizing with nitrogen (N) varied among sites and across the intertidal zone, with enhancements in growth, photosynthetic carbon gain, N resorption prior to leaf senescence and the leaf area index of canopies being significantly greater at the high sedimentation sites than at the low sedimentation sites, and in landward dwarf trees compared to seaward fringing trees. Sediment respiration (CO₂ efflux) was higher at the high sedimentation site than at the low one sedimentation site, but it was not significantly affected by fertilization, suggesting that the high sedimentation site supported greater bacterial mineralization of sediment carbon. Nutrient enrichment of the coastal zone has a role in facilitating the expansion of mangroves in estuaries of the North Island of New Zealand, but this effect is secondary to that of sedimentation, which increases habitat area and stimulates growth. In estuaries with high sediment loads, enrichment with N will cause greater mangrove growth and further changes in ecosystem function.     

Gas exchange and hydraulic properties in the crowns of two tree species in a Panamanian moist forest

Hydraulic properties and gas exchange were measured in branches of two tropical tree species (Simarouba amara Aubl. and Tapirira guianensis Aubl.) in a moist lowland forest in Panama. Branch-level sapflow, leaf-level stomatal conductance, and water potential measurements, along with measurements of specific hydraulic conductivity of stems in crown tops, were used to relate hydraulic parameters to leaf conductance in two individuals of each species. Branches of the taller trees for each species (28 m, 31 m) showed much higher leaf-specific hydraulic conductance and leaf vapor-phase conductance than those of the smaller trees (18m, 23m). This was probably related to the leaf-to-sapwood area ratio in branches of taller trees, which was less than half that in branches of smaller trees. Dye staining showed evidence of massive cavitation in all trees, indicating that stomata do not control leaf water potential to prevent xylem cavitation in these species. Stomatal conductance of intact leaves also appeared to be insensitive to leaf area removal treatment of nearby foliage. Nevertheless, a simple mass-balance model of water flux combining hydraulic and vapor transport was in close agreement with observed maximal vapor-phase conductance in the four trees (r²=0.98, P=0.006). Our results suggest that the major organismal control over water flux in these species is by structural (leaf area) rather than physiological (stomatal) means.     

树木高生长限制的几个假说

树木生长到一定年龄后高生长停滞, 对这一现象的解释存在很多争议。成熟假说认为树木顶端分生组织分裂活性下降导致树木高生长减慢。营养限制假说认为土壤中营养元素(特别是氮素)在植物活体或枯落物中积累使土壤中可利用的养分含量降低, 细根生物量增加和叶片光合能力下降导致了地上部分生长的减缓。呼吸假说认为边材呼吸消耗随个体发育的增加使投入到高生长的碳减少。水力限制假说认为水分运输阻力随高度增加而增加导致了叶片总光合碳同化下降, 分配到高生长的生物量减少。树木发展假说认为植物用多种调节机制克服随个体发育增加的水力阻力, 包括叶片结构和生理特征的变化, 叶/边材面积比降低, 边材渗透性和树干储水能力的增加等。水力限制假说得到了较多的关注, 对不同高度树木的叶比导率、光合特征和树干生长量等测定结果支持这一假说。但对这一假说 也存在很多的争议, 主要表现在: 水力阻力是否确实随高度的增加而增加, 水力阻力的分布, 补偿机制的作用和生物量分配转变等。本文综述了树木高生长限制的4个假说以及争论的焦点, 并总结了目前研究的热点问题和今后的研究方向。     

The hydraulic limitation hypothesis revisited

We proposed the hydraulic limitation hypothesis (HLH) as a mechanism to explain universal patterns in tree height, and tree and stand biomass growth: height growth slows down as trees grow taller, maximum height is lower for trees of the same species on resource-poor sites and annual wood production declines after canopy closure for even-aged forests. Our review of 51 studies that measured one or more of the components necessary for testing the hypothesis showed that taller trees differ physiologically from shorter, younger trees. Stomatal conductance to water vapour (g(s)), photosynthesis (A) and leaf-specific hydraulic conductance (K L) are often, but not always, lower in taller trees. Additionally, leaf mass per area is often greater in taller trees, and leaf area:sapwood area ratio changes with tree height. We conclude that hydraulic limitation of gas exchange with increasing tree size is common, but not universal. Where hydraulic limitations to A do occur, no evidence supports the original expectation that hydraulic limitation of carbon assimilation is sufficient to explain observed declines in wood production. Any limit to height or height growth does not appear to be related to the so-called age-related decline in wood production of forests after canopy closure. Future work on this problem should explicitly link leaf or canopy gas exchange with tree and stand growth, and consider a more fundamental assumption: whether tree biomass growth is limited by carbon availability.     

树木高生长限制的几个假说

树木生长到一定年龄后高生长停滞,对这一现象的解释存在很多争议.成熟假说认为树木顶端分生组织分裂活性下降导致树木高生长减慢.营养限制假说认为土壤中营养元素(特别是氮素)在植物活体或枯落物中积累使土壤中可利用的养分含量降低,细根生物量增加和叶片光合能力下降导致了地上部分生长的减缓.呼吸假说认为边材呼吸消耗随个体发育的增加使投入到高生长的碳减少.水力限制假说认为水分运输阻力随高度增加而增加导致了叶片总光合碳同化下降,分配到高生长的生物量减少.树木发展假说认为植物用多种调节机制克服随个体发育增加的水力阻力,包括叶片结构和生理特征的变化,叶/边材面积比降低,边材渗透性和树干储水能力的增加等.水力限制假说得到了较多的关注,对不同高度树木的叶比导率、光合特征和树干生长量等测定结果支持这一假说.但对这一假说也存在很多的争议,主要表现在:水力阻力是否确实随高度的增加而增加,水力阻力的分布,补偿机制的作用和生物量分配转变等.本文综述了树木高生长限制的4个假说以及争论的焦点,并总结了目前研究的热点问题和今后的研究方向.     

The role of freezing in setting the latitudinal limits of mangrove forests

Mangrove trees dominate coastal vegetation in tropical regions, but are completely replaced by herbaceous salt marshes at latitudes above 32 degrees N and 40 degrees S. Because water deficit can increase damage caused by freezing, we hypothesized that mangroves, which experience large deficits as a result of saline substrates, would suffer freeze-induced xylem failure. Vulnerability to freeze-induced xylem embolism was examined in the most poleward mangrove species in North America, in an area where freezing is rare but severe, and in Australia, in an area where freezing is frequent but mild. Percentage loss in hydraulic conductivity was measured following manipulations of xylem tension; xylem sap ion concentration was determined using X-ray microanalysis. Species with wider vessels suffered 60-100% loss of hydraulic conductivity after freezing and thawing under tension, while species with narrower vessels lost as little as 13-40% of conductivity. These results indicate that freeze-induced embolism may play a role in setting the latitudinal limits of distribution in mangroves, either through massive embolism following freezing, or through constraints on water transport as a result of vessel size.     

Variable effects of nutrient enrichment on soil respiration in mangrove forests

Background and Aims

Mangrove forests are globally important sites of carbon burial that are increasingly exposed to nutrient pollution. Here we assessed the response of soil respiration, an important component of forest carbon budgets, to nutrient enrichment over a wide range of mangrove forests.

Methods

We assessed the response of soil respiration to nutrient enrichment using fertilization experiments within 22 mangrove forests over ten sites. We used boosted regression tree (BRT) models to determine the importance of environmental and plant factors for soil respiration and its responsiveness to fertilizer treatments.

Results

Leaf area index explained the largest proportion of variation in soil respiration rates (LAI, 45.9 %) followed by those of site, which had a relative influence of 39.9 % in the BRT model. Nutrient enrichment enhanced soil respiration only in nine out of 22 forests. Soil respiration in scrub forests showed a positive response to nutrient addition more frequently than taller fringing forests. The response of soil respiration to nutrient enrichment varied with changes in specific leaf area (SLA) and stem extension, with relative influences of 14.4 %, 13.6 % in the BRT model respectively.

Conclusions

Soil respiration in mangroves varied with LAI, but other site specific factors also influenced soil respiration and its response to nutrient enrichment. Strong enhancements in aboveground growth but moderate increases in soil respiration with nutrient enrichment indicated that nutrient enrichment of mangrove forests has likely increased net ecosystem production.     

陕北沙地小叶杨“小老树”的水力适应性

以黄土高原"小老树"发生面积最大的树种-小叶杨为例,研究了不同水分生境下(水分相对好的沟道和干旱的梁坡片沙地,分别标记为生境A和生境B)小叶杨的生长、光合、水力学特性等,试图探讨小叶杨"小老树"对干旱生境的适应机制。结果表明:生境B小叶杨树高、地径、1 m树高处直径明显小于生境A,同时其主茎顶端枯枝长度大于生境A;生境B小叶杨叶净光合速率和气孔导度明显低于生境A。两种生境下小叶杨黎明前和正午叶水势无显著差异,生境B小叶杨正午时小枝枝干的比导水率明显低于生境A,但两种生境的比叶导水率则无显著差异,生境B小叶杨的Huber值明显大于生境A。生境B小叶杨枝干的P50(导水率损失50%时所对应的木质部水势)比生境A低约0.76 MPa左右,其气孔关闭的水势比生境A晚0.2 MPa左右,生境B小叶杨水分传输安全距离明显大于生境A。表明干旱生境下小叶杨高Huber值和低气孔导度有助于其叶水分关系维持相对稳定,低光合速率和维持大的水分传输安全距离所需的木质部碳投资增加是小叶杨形成"小老树"的重要原因。     

Comparative hydraulic and anatomic properties in palm trees (Washingtonia robusta) of varying heights: implications for hydraulic limitation to increased height growth

As trees grow taller, the energetic cost of moving water to the leaves becomes higher and could begin to limit carbon gain and subsequent growth. The hydraulic limitation hypothesis states that as trees grow taller, the path length and therefore frictional resistance of water flow increases, leading to stomatal closure, reduced photosynthesis and decreased height growth in tall trees. Although this hypothesis is supported by the physical laws governing water movement in trees, its validation has been complicated by the complex structure of most tree species. Therefore, this study tested the hydraulic limitation hypothesis in Washingtonia robusta (H. Wendl.), a palm that, while growing to tall heights, is still structurally simple enough to act as a model organism for testing. There were no discernable relationships between tree height and stomatal conductance, stomatal densities, guard cell lengths, leaf dry mass per unit area (LMA) or sap flux, suggesting that these key aspects of hydraulic limitation are not reduced in taller palms. Taller palms did, however, have higher maximum daily photosynthetic assimilation rates, lower minimum leaf water potentials that occurred earlier in the day and fewer, smaller leaves than did shorter palms. Leaf epidermal cells were also smaller in taller palms compared with shorter ones. These findings are consistent with hydraulic compensation in that tall palms may be overcoming the increased path length resistance through smaller, more efficient leaves and lower leaf water potentials than shorter palms.     

Differences in plant function in phosphorus- and nitrogen-limited mangrove ecosystems

Mangrove ecosystems can be either nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P) limited and are therefore vulnerable to nutrient pollution. Nutrient enrichment with either N or P may have differing effects on ecosystems because of underlying differences in plant physiological responses to these nutrients in either N- or P-limited settings. Using a common mangrove species, Avicennia germinans, in sites where growth was either N or P limited, we investigated differing physiological responses to N and P limitation and fertilization. We tested the hypothesis that water uptake and transport, and hydraulic architecture, were the main processes limiting productivity at the P-limited site, but that this was not the case at the N-limited site. We found that plants at the P-deficient site had lower leaf water potential, stomatal conductance and photosynthetic carbon-assimilation rates, and less conductive xylem, than those at the N-limited site. These differences were greatly reduced with P fertilization at the P-limited site. By contrast, fertilization with N at the N-limited site had little effect on either photosynthetic or hydraulic traits. We conclude that growth in N- and P-limited sites differentially affect the hydraulic pathways of mangroves. Plants experiencing P limitation appear to be water deficient and undergo more pronounced changes in structure and function with relief of nutrient deficiency than those in N-limited ecosystems.     

The bulk hydraulic conductivity of mangrove soil perforated with animal burrows

Flow of groundwater from mangrove swamp sediment to mangrove creeks is likely to be an important pathway in mangrove swamps, particularly for the removal of salt excluded at the mangrove root. The swamps are generally saturated with water, and are perforated with animal burrows, allowing significant groundwater flow to mangrove creeks to occur. The hydraulic conductivity of the sediment is thus an important physical parameter but is very difficult to measure in-situ. In this work, we describe a simple method for determining the hydraulic conductivity of mangrove sediment, including the effect of macropores such as crab burrows, which uses the existing animal burrows as piezometers. Experiments to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the sediment were carried out in a variety of mangrove forests. It was found that hydraulic conductivity varied from around 1 to 10 m per day, which is at least 10 times greater than would be expected if there were no burrows. In order to check the validity of the method, conventional piezometers were used to determine the free water table level in an area of mangroves fringing a creek. From these measurements, hydraulic conductivity was determined independently and found to be consistent with the new methodology.     

Wide vessels sustain marginal transpiration flux and do not optimize inefficient gas exchange activity under impaired hydraulic control and salinity

Plants optimize water use and carbon assimilation via transient regulation of stomata resistance and by limiting hydraulic conductivity in a long-term response of xylem anatomy. We postulated that without effective hydraulic regulation plants would permanently restrain water loss and photosynthetic productivity under salt stress conditions. We compared wild-type tomatoes to a transgenic type (TT) with impaired stomatal control. Gas exchange activity, biomass, starch content, leaf area and root traits, mineral composition and main stems xylem anatomy and hydraulic conductivity were analyzed in plants exposed to salinities of 1 and 4 dS m⁻¹ over 60 days. As the xylem cannot easily readjust to different environmental conditions, shifts in its anatomy and the permanent effect on plant hydraulic conductivity kept transpiration at lower levels under unstressed conditions and maintained it under salt-stress, while sustaining higher but inefficient assimilation rates, leading to starch accumulation and decreased plant biomass, leaf and root area and root length. Narrow conduits in unstressed TT plants were related to permanent restrain of hydraulic conductivity and plant transpiration. Under salinity, TT plants followed the atmospheric water demand, sustained similar transpiration rate from unstressed to salt-stressed conditions and possibly maintained hydraulic integrity, due to likely impaired hydraulic regulation, wider conduits and higher hydraulic conductivity. The accumulation of salts and starch in the TT plants was a strong evidence of salinity tolerance via osmotic regulation, also thought to help to maintain the assimilation rates and transpiration flux under salinity, although it was not translated into higher growth.     

Size-dependent mortality in a Neotropical savanna tree: the role of height-related adjustments in hydraulic architecture and carbon allocation

Size-related changes in hydraulic architecture, carbon allocation and gas exchange of Sclerolobium paniculatum (Leguminosae), a dominant tree species in Neotropical savannas of central Brazil (Cerrado), were investigated to assess their potential role in the dieback of tall individuals. Trees greater than ∼6-m-tall exhibited more branch damage, larger numbers of dead individuals, higher wood density, greater leaf mass per area, lower leaf area to sapwood area ratio (LA/SA), lower stomatal conductance and lower net CO₂ assimilation than small trees. Stem-specific hydraulic conductivity decreased, while leaf-specific hydraulic conductivity remained nearly constant, with increasing tree size because of lower LA/SA in larger trees. Leaves were substantially more vulnerable to embolism than stems. Large trees had lower maximum leaf hydraulic conductance ( K _leaf) than small trees and all tree sizes exhibited lower K _leaf at midday than at dawn. These size-related adjustments in hydraulic architecture and carbon allocation apparently incurred a large physiological cost: large trees received a lower return in carbon gain from their investment in stem and leaf biomass compared with small trees. Additionally, large trees may experience more severe water deficits in dry years due to lower capacity for buffering the effects of hydraulic path-length and soil water deficits.     

Transgenic poplars with reduced lignin show impaired xylem conductivity, growth efficiency and survival

We studied xylem anatomy and hydraulic architecture in 14 transgenic insertion events and a control line of hybrid poplar (Populus spp.) that varied in lignin content. Transgenic events had different levels of down-regulation of two genes encoding 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL). Two-year-old trees were characterized after growing either as free-standing trees in the field or as supported by stakes in a greenhouse. In free-standing trees, a 20 to 40% reduction in lignin content was associated with increased xylem vulnerability to embolism, shoot dieback and mortality. In staked trees, the decreased biomechanical demands on the xylem was associated with increases in the leaf area to sapwood area ratio and wood specific conductivity (k(s)), and with decreased leaf-specific conductivity (k(l)). These shifts in hydraulic architecture suggest that the bending stresses perceived during growth can affect traits important for xylem water transport. Severe 4CL-downregulation resulted in the patchy formation of discoloured, brown wood with irregular vessels in which water transport was strongly impeded. These severely 4CL-downregulated trees had significantly lower growth efficiency (biomass/leaf area). These results underscore the necessity of adequate lignification for mechanical support of the stem, water transport, tree growth and survival.     

Leaf-consumption levels in subtropical mangroves of Paranaguá Bay (SE Brazil)

The objective of this study was to measure leaf consumption levels, mainly by insect herbivores and the tree-dwelling crab Aratus pisonii (H. Milne Edwards, 1837), in mangrove forests of a large subtropical estuarine system in the South Atlantic Ocean, to determine if patterns of herbivory varied with forest structure, tree species and marked seasonal differences in rainfall and temperature. We analyzed three structurally different mangroves located in the euhaline high-energy sector of Paranaguá Bay, all of them with known values of annual litter fall. Consumption levels varied from 2.2–5.4% of total leaf area considering each site as a whole, and from 2.0–6.0% considering each tree species separately. No significant differences in consumption levels were found between summer and winter samples, but significant differences were found among sites and among tree species. Leaves from Laguncularia racemosa were most consumed. The site with lower consumption levels was the one covered with dwarf trees, a condition usually caused by low nutrient availability in the soil. Analysis of nitrogen and phosphorus levels revealed lower amounts of both nutrients in soils and of phosphorus in leaves from this site when compared to the ones containing more developed trees. This result suggests a relationship between herbivory and nutrient availability in the plants.     

Nitrogen fertilization enhances water‐use efficiency in a saline environment

Effects of salinity and nutrients on carbon gain in relation to water use were studied in the grey mangrove, Avicennia marina, growing along a natural salinity gradient in south‐eastern Australia. Tall trees characterized areas of seawater salinities (fringe zone) and stunted trees dominated landward hypersaline areas (scrub zone). Trees were fertilized with nitrogen (+N) or phosphorus (+P) or unfertilized. There was no significant effect of +P on shoot growth, whereas +N enhanced canopy development, particularly in scrub trees. Scrub trees maintained greater CO₂ assimilation per unit water transpired (water‐use efficiency, WUE) and had lower nitrogen‐use efficiency (NUE; CO₂ assimilation rate per unit leaf nitrogen) than fringe trees. The CO₂ assimilation rates of +N trees were similar to those in other treatments, but were achieved at lower transpiration rates, stomatal conductance and intercellular CO₂ concentrations. Maintaining comparable assimilation rates at lower stomatal conductance requires greater ribulose 1·5‐bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase activity, consistent with greater N content per unit leaf area in +N trees. Hence, +N enhanced WUE at the expense of NUE. Instantaneous WUE estimates were supported by less negative foliar δ¹³C values for +N trees and scrub control trees. Thus, nutrient enrichment may alter the structure and function of mangrove forests along salinity gradients.     

人工林生产力年龄效应及衰退机理研究进展

研究人工林生长规律具有重要的经济和生态意义。同龄林林分郁闭后,地上部净初级生产量随着林龄增加而降低的现象近几十年引起了林业工作者的兴趣和注意并成为研究热点。多数研究试图通过光合生理、林分营养、生物量分配和林分结构等随林龄的变化规律来解释林分生产力衰退机理。研究认为,林分郁闭后水分传输阻力的增加减少了树木的光合能力;林地养分的减少使得根系生物量分配增加,导致林分叶面积减少,树木光合能力下降;对资源的竞争使得树木优势度发生变化,资源利用率降低。光合能力、林分叶面积和资源利用率的降低以及根系生物量分配的增加是林分生产力衰退的关键,而林分呼吸和林木衰老的作用不大。今后深入研究树体水分运输及其补偿机制、逆境下根系的生长过程及适应机制,并跟踪研究林分生长规律,更有助于揭示人工林生产力衰退的实质。     

Differentiation between true mangroves and mangrove associates based on leaf traits and salt contents

Aims Mangrove species are classified as true mangroves and mangrove associates. However, as for some fringe species found mainly on the landward transitional zones of mangroves, no consensus among scientists could be reached in favor of this classification and much debate arises. We hypothesized that true mangroves differ from mangrove associates physiologically and ecologically in their ability to survive in mangrove environment.Methods To test this hypothesis, leaf structural traits and osmotic properties were used to describe variation in 33 mangrove species (17 true mangroves, 6 mangrove associates and 10 controversial species).Important findings Specific leaf area (SLA) of true mangroves as well as leaf nitrogen concentration on a leaf mass (Nmass) were lower than that of mangrove associates; leaf succulence was, in general, twice as high in true mangroves compared to mangrove associates; true mangroves accumulated 8–9 times more Na and Cl than mangrove associates and the former had K/Na ratios <0.5, but the latter had K/Na ratios>0.5. These results indicated that true mangroves differed reliably from mangrove associates in leaf traits and osmotic properties. True mangroves are true halophytes and mangrove associates are glycophytes with certain salt tolerance. Combining distribution pattern information, the 10 controversial species were reclassified.     

Competition and abiotic stress affect the size of mangroves near their geographic range limit

竞争和非生物胁迫影响处于地理分布边界的红树植物的个体大小 关于红树植物竞争的研究大多局限于幼苗和人工林。我们首次对天然红树林中成年红树的种内竞争进行了控制实验研究,旨在检验竞争和非生物因子在决定红树植物个体大小中的相对重要性。研究样 地位于靠近红树林地理分布边界的美国德克萨斯州阿兰萨斯港(Port Aransas)附近区域。该区域的红树林由“灌丛”状的黑红树(萌芽白骨壤,Avicennia germinans)单一物种组成。我们对10个样方中原生红树 林进行疏伐,形成系列红树林覆盖度梯度,在2013–2019年期间观测各样方中红树植物的生长指标,量化分析红树林覆盖度对红树植物生长的影响;并于2019年调查了红树林的冠层高度。研究结果表明,在该研究期间,红树植物的相对生长速率随着红树林覆盖度的增加而降低,100%红树林覆盖度样方中的红 树植物大小几乎没有增长,说明它们已经达到了该红树林密度条件下的最大尺寸。在红树林覆盖度降低 的样方中,株高明显增加,在红树林覆盖度为11%的样方中,红树植物株高增加了约52%。对比临水岸 边和林内两种生境中的样方,处于临水岸边生境的红树林冠层高度比处于林内生境的高约30%,且这两 种生境的红树林冠层高度均随红树林覆盖度的增加而降低。叶片叶绿素含量和冠层光截留量的测定数据 显示,该区域红树植物的生长也受到氮限制的影响。由此表明,处于地理分布边界的“灌丛”状红树林一 方面受到营养的限制,另一方面红树植物种内个体间仍存在较为强烈的竞争,且种内竞争对红树植物生长的影响较该红树林内非生物生境因子更为重要。     

Independence of stem and leaf hydraulic traits in six Euphorbiaceae tree species with contrasting leaf phenology

Hydraulic traits and hydraulic-related structural properties were examined in three deciduous (Hevea brasiliensis, Macaranga denticulate, and Bischofia javanica) and three evergreen (Drypetes indica, Aleurites moluccana, and Codiaeum variegatum) Euphorbiaceae tree species from a seasonally tropical forest in south-western China. Xylem water potential at 50% loss of stem hydraulic conductivity (P50_stem) was more negative in the evergreen tree, but leaf water potential at 50% loss of leaf hydraulic conductivity (P50_leaf) did not function as P50_stem did. Furthermore, P50_stem was more negative than P50_leaf in the evergreen tree; contrarily, this pattern was not observed in the deciduous tree. Leaf hydraulic conductivity overlapped considerably, but stem hydraulic conductivity diverged between the evergreen and deciduous tree. Correspondingly, structural properties of leaves overlapped substantially; however, structural properties of stem diverged markedly. Consequently, leaf and stem hydraulic traits were closely correlated with leaf and stem structural properties, respectively. Additionally, stem hydraulic efficiency was significantly correlated with stem hydraulic resistance to embolism; nevertheless, such a hydraulic pattern was not found in leaf hydraulics. Thus, these results suggest: (1) that the evergreen and deciduous tree mainly diverge in stem hydraulics, but not in leaf hydraulics, (2) that regardless of leaf or stem, their hydraulic traits result primarily from structural properties, and not from leaf phenology, (3) that leaves are more vulnerable to drought-induced embolism than stem in the evergreen tree, but not always in the deciduous tree and (4) that there exists a trade-off between hydraulic efficiency and safety for stem hydraulics, but not for leaf hydraulics.