Recurrent V1–V2 interaction in early visual boundary processing

A majority of cortical areas are connected via feedforward and feedback fiber projections. In feedforward pathways we mainly observe stages of feature detection and integration. The computational role of the descending pathways at different stages of processing remains mainly unknown. Based on empirical findings we suggest that the top-down feedback pathways subserve a context-dependent gain control mechanism. We propose a new computational model for recurrent contour processing in which normalized activities of orientation selective contrast cells are fed forward to the next processing stage. There, the arrangement of input activation is matched against local patterns of contour shape. The resulting activities are subsequently fed back to the previous stage to locally enhance those initial measurements that are consistent with the top-down generated responses. In all, we suggest a computational theory for recurrent processing in the visual cortex in which the significance of local measurements is evaluated on the basis of a broader visual context that is represented in terms of contour code patterns. The model serves as a framework to link physiological with perceptual data gathered in psychophysical experiments. It handles a variety of perceptual phenomena, such as the local grouping of fragmented shape outline, texture surround and density effects, and the interpolation of illusory contours. Received: 28 October 1998 / Accepted in revised form: 19 March 1999     

Engineering-approach accelerates computational understanding of V1–V2 neural properties

We present two computational models (i) long-range horizontal connections and the nonlinear effect in V1 and (ii) the filling-in process at the blind spot. Both models are obtained deductively from standard regularization theory to show that physiological evidence of V1 and V2 neural properties is essential for efficient image processing. We stress that the engineering approach should be imported to understand visual systems computationally, even though this approach usually ignores physiological evidence and the target is neither neurons nor the brain.

Die V?gel der Kurilen

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Artenliste der V?gel Deutschlands

Zusammenfassung Die Vögel Deutschlands werden in einer aktuellen Artenliste (Checklist) mit kurzen Statusangaben vorgestellt. Sie sollte künftig als Referenz für Systematik, wissenschaftliche und deutsche Namen und die Einordnung von Nachweisen benutzt werden. Für ein in Vorbereitung befindliches, ausführlich kommentiertes Verzeichnis der Vögel Deutschlands dient die Checklist als Arbeitsgrundlage.In Deutschland wurden seit dem Jahr 1800 470 Vogelarten nachgewiesen (Kategorien A, A₀, B, BD und C), seit 1950 nur 421. 273 Vogelarten haben seit 1800 in Deutschland gebrütet, doch sind nur 238 von ihnen als Bestandteil der aktuellen Brutvogelwelt einzustufen (Status 2–4). Bei sechs von ihnen handelt es sich um ursprünglich nicht autochthone, sondern ausgesetzte und offenbar fest etablierte Arten (Kategorie C). Weitere 55 Arten erscheinen lediglich als regelmäßige Durchzügler und Wintergäste in Deutschland. Als Ausnahmeerscheinung werden 148 der seit 1950 und die 49 lediglich vor 1950 als Wildvögel festgestellten Arten eingestuft. Hinzu kommen mindestens 46 Arten in Kategorie D, die als wahrscheinliche oder sichere Gefangenschaftsflüchtlinge festgestellt wurden, teilweise schon gebrütet haben und auch in anderen europäischen Listen geführt werden, dort teilweise als Wildvögel. Arten, von denen Meldungen ihres Vorkommens mit Dokumentation an die Deutsche Seltenheitenkommission erwünscht sind und die erst nach Anerkennung publiziert werden sollten, wurden in der Liste markiert.

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Checklist of the birds of Germany

Summary This checklist of the birds of Germany gives German and scientific names and short information on the recent status of each species as of 1. 1. 1993. It is intended to serve as reference for systematic sequence, nomenclature and occurrence.Since 1800 470 bird species have been recorded within the present boundaries of Germany (categories A, A₀, B, BD and C in column 1) and were accepted by the German Rarities Committee. Those 415 species reliably recorded in an apparently wild state since 1950 are included in category A (A₀ if no photographic or specimen documentation available), 32 species recorded only before 1950 in an apparently wild state in category B. 17 species regarded as genuine vagrants in Germany only prior to 1950, but as escapes thereafter, were included in category BD. Six species in category C are introduced. In addition, a minimum of 46 species have been recorded as certain or most likely escapes from captivity (category D: not part of the German list and therefore in an appendix!); some of these have bred in the wild in Germany, others are considered genuine vagrants in other European countries.273 species of categories A–C have bred in Germany since 1800, but only 238 species are part of the current breeding avifauna (status 2–4 in column 2). Of these, six species are not indigenous to the country, but have been introduced or established feral, apparently self-sustaining breeding populations (category C). Column 3 gives the status outside the breeding season as residents (J), winter visitors (W), migrants (Z; z for scarce passage migrants with less than 100 individuals per year). 55 species are regular non-breeding visitors or transient migrants, 148 have been classified as vagrants with on average less than five records per year since 1980 (A) or less than five records in total since 1950 (a). Documentation of future records of species indicated in column 4 is requested by the German Rarities Committee.

     

16S rRNA基因高变区V4和V3−V4及测序深度对油藏细菌菌群分析的影响

【背景】16S rRNA基因测序是当前研究微生物群落组成及其分布的重要手段。【目的】揭示16S rRNA基因高变区V4 (515-806)和V3-V4 (338-806)及测序深度(1-2万条和10万条)对油藏微生物细菌群落组成和多样性分析的影响。【方法】所用油水样细菌16SrRNA基因拷贝数为(6.51±0.56)×108/L,16SrRNA基因V4区测序使用IlluminaMiSeqPE250测序平台,V3-V4区测序使用MiSeqPE300测序平台。【结果】测序深度达到1-2万条时,V4和V3-V4区测序文库覆盖率均达到99.6%以上,且具有较好的可重复性;V4区测序深度为1-2万和10万时,菌群α多样性指数受测序深度影响不显著;与V4区测序相比,同样测序深度(1-2万)下,V3-V4区测序获得的菌群α多样性指数有所降低。V4测序1-2万与10万获得的菌群中几乎未出现显著性差异微生物类群;同样测序深度(1-2万)下,V4与V3-V4测序相比,优势微生物类群Epsilonproteobacteria(51.37%:64.23%)和Deltaproteobacteria (17.96%:11.40%)相对丰度表现出显著差异。【结论】测序深度达到一定水平,增加测序深度会一定程度上影响菌群α多样性指数,对菌群β多样性分析的影响十分有限;同一测序深度下,V4区与V3-V4区测序获得的细菌菌群α多样性指数明显不同,部分优势微生物类群的相对丰度值之间具有显著性差异。鉴于测序读长的提升和测序成本降低,与V4区测序相比,V3-V4区测序在更低的测序深度下文库覆盖率更高,可提供更多用于反映物种亲缘关系的16S rRNA碱基信息,本文认为V3-V4区测序可作为当下菌群分析的首选区域。     

Interaction of αVβ3 and αVβ6 Integrins with Human Parechovirus 1

Human parechovirus (HPEV) infections are very common in early childhood and can be severe in neonates. It has been shown that integrins are important for cellular infectivity of HPEV1 through experiments using peptide blocking assays and function-blocking antibodies to α_V integrins. The interaction of HPEV1 with α_V integrins is presumably mediated by a C-terminal RGD motif in the capsid protein VP1. We characterized the binding of integrins α_Vβ₃ and α_Vβ₆ to HPEV1 by biochemical and structural studies. We showed that although HPEV1 bound efficiently to immobilized integrins, α_Vβ₆ bound more efficiently than α_Vβ₃ to immobilized HPEV1. Moreover, soluble α_Vβ₆, but not α_Vβ₃, blocked HPEV1 cellular infectivity, indicating that it is a high-affinity receptor for HPEV1. We also showed that HPEV1 binding to integrins in vitro could be partially blocked by RGD peptides. Using electron cryo-microscopy and image reconstruction, we showed that HPEV1 has the typical T=1 (pseudo T=3) organization of a picornavirus. Complexes of HPEV1 and integrins indicated that both integrin footprints reside between the 5-fold and 3-fold symmetry axes. This result does not match the RGD position predicted from the coxsackievirus A9 X-ray structure but is consistent with the predicted location of this motif in the shorter C terminus found in HPEV1. This first structural characterization of a parechovirus indicates that the differences in receptor binding are due to the amino acid differences in the integrins rather than to significantly different viral footprints.Picornaviruses consist of a positive-sense, single-stranded infectious RNA genome of approximately 7.3 kb enclosed in a capsid composed of 60 copies of each of the three or four capsid proteins (VP1 to VP4). Human parechovirus 1 (HPEV1) is a member of the Parechovirus genus of the Picornaviridae family (38, 70). There are currently eight completely sequenced human parechovirus types and 14 described types (4, 19, 24, 30, 38, 39, 51, 58, 78). In addition, the Parechovirus genus currently has four Ljungan virus members that infect rodents. HPEV1 exhibits several distinct molecular characteristics compared to other picornaviruses (38, 71). These include the lack of the maturation cleavage of the capsid proteins VP0 to VP4 (N-terminal) and VP2 (C-terminal), existence of an approximately 30-amino-acid-long extension to the N terminus of VP3, a unique nonstructural protein 2A, and a 5′ untranslated region that is more closely related to picornaviruses infecting animals than those infecting humans.HPEV infections are common during the first years of life and are often mild or asymptomatic (20, 28, 42, 73, 80). Recently, a number of new types have been identified, and their prevalence in stool samples, for example, highlights their clinical importance. Normally, they cause gastroenteritis and respiratory infections, but severe illnesses, such as infections of the central nervous system, generalized infections of neonates, and myocarditis, have also been associated with HPEV infections (1, 8, 10, 28, 80). Currently, the role of the unique molecular, structural, and antigenic characteristics of HPEVs in the pathogenesis of infection is unknown.HPEV types 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 are known to possess an RGD motif near the C terminus of VP1 that is known to facilitate binding of cellular ligands (e.g., fibronectin) to α_v integrins. The motif is in an analogous position to motifs in coxsackievirus A9 (CAV9) and echovirus 9 (EV9; Barty strain) (Fig. ​(Fig.1).1). The role of the RGD sequence in cellular entry and subsequent replication of HPEV1 has been shown through blocking assays with RGD-containing peptides, mutation of the sequence, and function-blocking antibodies to α_v integrins (11, 43, 62, 71). These results strongly suggested that α_v integrins play a central role in the initiation of HPEV1 infection. Direct involvement of α_v integrins in the infectious entry of HPEV1 was further confirmed by overexpression of human α_vβ₁ and α_vβ₃ integrins in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, allowing successful virus infection (74). There are no reports yet on the identification of receptors for the HPEV types lacking the RGD motif (HPEV3, HPEV7, and HPEV8) (19, 39, 51).Open in a separate windowFIG. 1.Sequence alignments. Amino acid sequence alignment of the viral coat protein VP1 from different picornaviruses with the CAV9 secondary structure derived from the atomic model displayed above the alignment (34). The columns boxed in blue with red letters signify similarity, and the red column signifies identity. There is limited similarity between HPEV and other picornaviruses. C-terminal RGD motifs are boxed in red.Although the crystal structures of several picornaviruses have been determined (3, 26, 34, 35, 44, 57, 59, 65, 68, 72) and the receptor interactions have been studied in detail by X-ray crystallography, electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM), and three-dimensional (3D) image reconstruction (6, 9, 23, 31, 32, 47, 83), there is no structural information available for the parechoviruses or parechovirus-receptor complexes. Here, we compare the binding of α_Vβ₃ and α_Vβ₆ to HPEV1 in vitro by biochemical assays and determine the structures of HPEV1 and the corresponding HPEV1-integrin complexes.     

V EGF 一D 及V EGFR 一3 在乳腺癌淋巴道转移中的作用

目的：探讨VEGF-D（血管内皮生长因子-D）及其受体VEGFR-3（血管内皮生长因子受体-3）在乳腺癌淋巴道转移中的作用和意义。方法：采用免疫组化二步法检测90例乳腺癌组织中VEGF—D／VEGFR-3的表达。结果：（1）VECF—D阳性率在淋巴结转移组为82％（41／50）显著高于未转移组37．5％（15／40）,（P〈0．01）。VEGFR-3阳性率在淋巴结转移组为84％（42／50）显著高于未转移组42．5％（17／40）,（P〈0．05）,且VEGF—D与VEGFR-3表达显著相关,（P〈0．05）。（2）VEGF—D表达与年龄、肿瘤大小、病理分型、临床分级、ER、PR无关,与CerbB-2表达显著相关,（P〈0．05）。结论：VEGF—D／VEGFIR-3的表达与乳腺癌淋巴道转移有关,VEGF—D可能促进了乳腺癌淋巴管的生成。     

ICL V4与ICL V4c治疗超高度近视患者的视觉质量比较

目的比较人工晶状体(ICL V4)与中央孔型晶状体眼后房型人工晶体(ICL V4c)植入术治疗超高度近视患者术后的视觉质量。方法选取2017年4月～2019年6月我院收治的30例(60眼)超高度近视患者,随机分为对照组与观察组,每组各15例。对照组植入ICL V4,观察组植入ICL V4c。观察两组术后3个月裸眼视力矫正、矫正视力及并发症情况,比较两组术前与术后3个月明光、明视眩光、暗光、暗视眩光环境下的对比敏感度。结果两组术后3个月裸眼视力≥术前最佳矫正视力、最佳矫正视力提高≥2行百分比比较,差异无统计学意义(均P0.05)。两组术前与术后3个月在明光、明视眩光、暗光、暗视眩光环境下的对比敏感度比较,差异均无统计学意义(均P0.05)。两组术后3个月在明光、明视眩光、暗光、暗视眩光环境下的对比敏感度均明显高于术前(均P0.01)。对照组1眼眼压增高,观察组2眼眼压增高,两组术后均未出现自身晶状体浑浊。结论 ICL V4c和ICL V4治疗超高度近视患者术后的视觉质量无差异,但ICL V4c植入术无需再做房水引流通路,可减少手术操作与并发症。     

HIV Infection of Monocytes-Derived Dendritic Cells Inhibits Vγ9Vδ2 T Cells Functions

DCs act as sentinel cells against incoming pathogens and represent the most potent antigen presenting cells, having the unique capability to prime naïve T cells. In addition to their role in induction of adaptive immune responses, DC are also able to activate innate cells as γδ T cells; in particular, a reciprocal crosstalk between DC and γδ T cells was demonstrated. However, whether HIV infection may alter DC-Vγ9Vδ2 T cells cross-talk was not yet described. To clarify this issue, we cultured activated Vγ9Vδ2 T cells with HIV infected monocyte derived DC (MoDC). After 5 days we evaluated MoDC phenotype, and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells activation and proliferation. In our model, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells were not able to proliferate in response to HIV-infected MoDC, although an up-regulation of CD69 was observed. Upon phosphoantigens stimulation, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells proliferation and cytokine production were inhibited when cultured with HIV-infected MoDC in a cell-contact dependent way. Moreover, HIV-infected MoDC are not able to up-regulate CD86 molecules when cultured with activated Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, compared with uninfected MoDC. Further, activated Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are not able to induce HLA DR up-regulation and CCR5 down-regulation on HIV-infected MoDC. These data indicate that HIV-infected DC alter the capacity of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells to respond to their antigens, pointing out a new mechanisms of induction of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells anergy carried out by HIV, that could contribute to immune evasion.     

Beeren und Farbenwahl durch V?gel

Summary Three chance observations on colour preference in birds feeding on berries are presented.Blackbirds (Turdus merula) in Bavaria fed in a cherry-tree irrespective of the colour of the cherries. They began feeding when the first cherries ripened and turned from greenish-yellow to light red. As the cherries were offered in different colours at the same time, and pell-mell in the same tree, the birds presumably quickly learned by trial and error to eat cherries of different colours.A little later Blackbirds, which must have been partly if not exclusively the same individuals, started to feed on red currants. Red and white currants were offered to them at the same time, and side by side but on different bushes. In this case there was a very clear spontaneous selection of red in preference to white. White berries were only eaten after the red bushes had been cleared up by the birds.Sardinian Warblers (Sylvia melanocephala) in Sardinia, feeding on berries ofRhamnus alaterna, which are coral red and hard when unripe and turn to blackish and soft getting ripe, prefered the black ones. It is presumed that they conditioned themselves to black and soft by trial and error learning. Generalisations as to birds preferring certain colours in berries they feed on can not be drawn from any special case.     

中国灵芝科的分类研究V

著者除已报道中国灵芝科67种1变型外,本文继续报道中国灵芝科3个新种和1个中国新记录。它们是：黎母山灵芝(Ganoderma limushanense Zhao et X. Q. Zhang),广西假芝 Amauroderma guangxiense Zhao et X. Q. Zhang), 弄岗假芝 (A. longgangense Zhao et X. Q. Zhang)和拟热带灵芝 (Ganadcrma ahmadii Steyactt)。本文研究的全部标本都保藏于中国科学院微生物研究所真菌标本室。     

Chemotherapy and zoledronate sensitize solid tumour cells to Vγ9Vδ2 T cell cytotoxicity

Combinations of cellular immune-based therapies with chemotherapy and other antitumour agents may be of significant clinical benefit in the treatment of many forms of cancer. Gamma delta (γδ) T cells are of particular interest for use in such combined therapies due to their potent antitumour cytotoxicity and relative ease of generation in vitro. Here, we demonstrate high levels of cytotoxicity against solid tumour-derived cell lines with combination treatment utilizing Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, chemotherapeutic agents and the bisphosphonate, zoledronate. Pre-treatment with low concentrations of chemotherapeutic agents or zoledronate sensitized tumour cells to rapid killing by Vγ9Vδ2 T cells with levels of cytotoxicity approaching 90%. In addition, zoledronate enhanced the chemotherapy-induced sensitization of tumour cells to Vγ9Vδ2 T cell cytotoxicity resulting in almost 100% lysis of tumour targets in some cases. Vγ9Vδ2 T cell cytotoxicity was mediated by perforin following TCR-dependent and isoprenoid-mediated recognition of tumour cells. Production of IFN-γ by Vγ9Vδ2 T cells was also induced after exposure to sensitized targets. We conclude that administration of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells at suitable intervals after chemotherapy and zoledronate may substantially increase antitumour activities in a range of malignancies. Financial support and conflicts of interest: This study was supported by grants from Medinet (Japan), and Suncorp Metway and Gallipoli Research Foundation (Australia). No financial or commercial interests arise from this study. Informed consent: This study was approved by Human Research Ethics Committees of the University of Queensland and Greenslopes Private Hospital and informed consent was obtained from all subjects.     

Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells specifically recognize and kill acute myeloid leukemic blasts

Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are attractive candidates for antileukemic activity. The analysis of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients revealed that their absolute cell numbers were normal in the blood as well as in the bone marrow but showed a striking imbalance in the differentiation subsets, with preponderance of the effector memory population. This unusual phenotype was restored after removal of leukemic cells in patients, which reached complete remission after chemotherapy, suggesting that leukemic cells might be involved in the alteration of γδ T cell development in AML. Accordingly, coculture between AML cells and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells induced selection of effector cells. In accordance with their effector memory status, in vitro proliferation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells was reduced compared with normal controls. Nevertheless, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells efficiently killed autologous AML blasts via the perforin/granzyme pathway. The ligands for DNAM-1 were expressed by AML cells. We showed that killing of AML blasts was TCR and DNAM-1 dependent. Using a xenotransplantation murine model, we showed that Vγ9Vδ2 T cells homed to the bone marrow in close proximity of engrafted leukemic cells and enhanced survival. These data demonstrate that Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are endowed with the ability to interact with and eradicate AML blasts both in vitro and in a mouse model. Collectively, our data revealed that Vγ9Vδ2 T cells have a potent antileukemic activity provided that optimal activation is achieved, such as with synthetic TCR agonists. This study enhances the interest of these cells for therapeutic purposes such as AML treatment.     

Type 1 responses of human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells to influenza A viruses

γδ T cells are essential constituents of antimicrobial and antitumor defenses. We have recently reported that phosphoantigen isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP)-expanded human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells participated in anti-influenza virus immunity by efficiently killing both human and avian influenza virus-infected monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) in vitro. However, little is known about the noncytolytic responses and trafficking program of γδ T cells to influenza virus. In this study, we found that Vγ9Vδ2 T cells expressed both type 1 cytokines and chemokine receptors during influenza virus infection, and IPP-expanded cells had a higher capacity to produce gamma interferon (IFN-γ). Besides their potent cytolytic activity against pandemic H1N1 virus-infected cells, IPP-activated γδ T cells also had noncytolytic inhibitory effects on seasonal and pandemic H1N1 viruses via IFN-γ but had no such effects on avian H5N1 or H9N2 virus. Avian H5N1 and H9N2 viruses induced significantly higher CCL3, CCL4, and CCL5 production in Vγ9Vδ2 T cells than human seasonal H1N1 virus. CCR5 mediated the migration of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells toward influenza virus-infected cells. Our findings suggest a novel therapeutic strategy of using phosphoantigens to boost the antiviral activities of human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells against influenza virus infection.     

Indirect stimulation of human Vγ2Vδ2 T cells through alterations in isoprenoid metabolism

Human Vγ2Vδ2 T cells monitor isoprenoid metabolism by recognizing (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP), an intermediate in the 2-C-methyl-d-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway used by microbes, and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), an intermediate in the mevalonate pathway used by humans. Aminobisphosphonates and alkylamines indirectly stimulate Vγ2Vδ2 cells by inhibiting farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FDPS) in the mevalonate pathway, thereby increasing IPP/triphosphoric acid 1-adenosin-5'-yl ester 3-(3-methylbut-3-enyl) ester that directly stimulate. In this study, we further characterize stimulation by these compounds and define pathways used by new classes of compounds. Consistent with FDPS inhibition, stimulation of Vγ2Vδ2 cells by aminobisphosphonates and alkylamines was much more sensitive to statin inhibition than stimulation by prenyl pyrophosphates; however, the continuous presence of aminobisphosphonates was toxic for T cells and blocked their proliferation. Aminobisphosphonate stimulation was rapid and prolonged, independent of known Ag-presenting molecules, and resistant to fixation. New classes of stimulatory compounds-mevalonate, the alcohol of HMBPP, and alkenyl phosphonates-likely stimulate differently. Mevalonate, a rate-limiting metabolite, appears to enter cells to increase IPP levels, whereas the alcohol of HMBPP and alkenyl phosphonates are directly recognized. The critical chemical feature of bisphosphonates is the amino moiety, because its loss switched aminobisphosphonates to direct Ags. Transfection of APCs with small interfering RNA downregulating FDPS rendered them stimulatory for Vγ2Vδ2 cells and increased cellular IPP. Small interfering RNAs for isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase functioned similarly. Our results show that a variety of manipulations affecting isoprenoid metabolism lead to stimulation of Vγ2Vδ2 T cells and that pulsing aminobisphosphonates would be more effective for the ex vivo expansion of Vγ2Vδ2 T cells for adoptive cancer immunotherapy.     

Evolution of a Vκ gene family

To examine the evolution of multigene families we have selected as an example an immunoglobulin light chain variable region subgroup (V24) which has been extensively characterized in inbred mice (Mus musculus domesticus). Homologous genes have been isolated and sequenced from Mus pahari, a genetically and geographically isolated species believed to be the oldest living representative of the genus. Southern blot analysis using probes corresponding to individual genes in this subgroup reveals changes in the overall size of the family occurring at the level of individual genes but not at the level of the entire family. Nucleotide sequence analysis indicates an absence of regulatory sequences such as the CAT and TATA boxes 5 to the coding region, but a decanucleotide sequence involved in light chain expression is highly conserved. Within coding regions highly complex patterns of variation are seen which appear to reflect quite different selective pressures on various subregions of the coding sequence. Complementarity determining regions (CDR) are conserved to different extents, with the first CDR region in all family members being among the most conserved segments of the molecule. Conservation is similarly variable among framework segments, indicating complex and variable evolutionary pressures not only at the level of individual genes or their products but also at subregions within homologous molecules.