A survey of modern pollen and vegetation along a south–north transect in Mongolia

Aim This modern pollen‐rain study documents the spatial and quantitative relationships between modern pollen and vegetation in Mongolia, and explores the potential for using this relationship in palaeoclimatic reconstructions. Location East‐central Mongolia. Methods We collected 104 pollen surface samples along a south–north transect across five vegetation zones in Mongolia. Discriminant analysis was used to classify the modern pollen spectra into five pollen assemblages corresponding to the five vegetation zones. Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to divide the main pollen taxa into two major groups and seven subgroups representing the dry and moist vegetation types and the main vegetation communities within them. Results Each vegetation zone along the transect can be characterized by a distinctive modern pollen assemblage as follows: (1) desert zone: Chenopodiaceae–Zygophyllaceae–Nitraria–Poaceae pollen assemblage; (2) desert‐steppe zone: Poaceae–Chenopodiaceae pollen assemblage; (3) steppe zone: Artemisia–Aster‐type–Poaceae–Pinus Haploxylon‐type pollen assemblage; (4) forest‐steppe zone: Pinus Haploxylon‐type–Picea–Artemisia–Betula, montane forb/shrub and pteridophyte pollen assemblage; and (5) mountain taiga zone: Pinus Haploxylon‐type–Picea–Poaceae–Cyperaceae, montane forb/shrub and Pteridophyte pollen assemblage. Main conclusions Based on the ratio between the major pollen taxon groups and subgroups, we propose two pollen–climate indices that represent the precipitation and temperature conditions in the study region. When plotted along our south–north transect, the moisture indices (M) and temperature indices (T) mimic the regional gradients of precipitation and temperature across Mongolia very closely. These pollen–climate indices can be used for palaeoclimatic reconstruction based on fossil pollen data.     

Modern pollen studies in the territory of Sagalassos (Southwest Turkey) and their use in the interpretation of a Late Holocene pollen diagram

Modern pollen precipitation studies were carried out on a regional scale in the territory of the classical city of Sagalassos (Southwest Turkey). 57 moss cushions and 7 soil samples from different vegetation types were analysed palynologically. The resulting pollen spectra were grouped into 14 vegetation groups, which were examined using discriminant analysis and principal components analysis. These numerical procedures are applied to display the structure in the data set in a comprehensive way. Some of the modern spectra groups seem to be well-defined, whereas others are difficult to distinguish from each other. After the relationships between the modern pollen spectra had been analysed, the fossil data from a core from the marsh of Gravgaz were added to the data set so that any similarities between fossil and modern spectra could be seen. A joint principal components analysis of the modern and fossil pollen spectra revealed that the pollen spectra from the earliest (ca. 2600-2500 BP; Cal. 830-590 BC till 790-520 BC) and the latest (starting at ca. 1300 BP; Cal. 660-780 AD) pollen assemblage zones have modern counterparts. On the other hand, the pollen spectra from the pollen assemblage zone dominated by Artemisia (ca. 2500-2300 BP; Cal. 790-520 BC till 410-210 BC) and from the pollen assemblage zone that indicated the practice of arboriculture (ca. 2300-1300 BP; Cal. 410-210 BC till 660-780 AD) have no close modern analogues, although individual tabulated pollen percentages revealed some similarities with some modern spectra groups.     

Reproductive ecology and pollen representation among neotropical trees

Three years of pollen trapping data from Barro Colorado Island, Panama, are compared with local vegetation inventories. Two hypotheses relating pollen representation to ‘messy’ pollination and flower form are tested. Dioecious taxa were found to be over‐represented in pollen spectra compared with their occurrence in local forests. Similarly, anemophilous and ‘messy’ pollination types were found to be over‐represented. While anemophilous taxa were the best dispersed pollen types, zoophilous taxa were also well‐represented in dispersal classes of 20–40 m and > 40 m. Thus pollen arriving to lake sediments is most likely to be from anemophilous species or those zoophilous species exhibiting ‘messy’ pollination syndromes. Pollination mechanisms will predictably bias the fossil record against certain flower morphologies. These data are of significance to those using the fossil pollen record to reconstruct the timing and sequence of angiosperm evolution. These data help prioritize plants to be included in modern pollen reference collections and to focus the search for ‘unknown’ types on most‐likely candidate families.     

Man, vegetation and climate during the Holocene in the territory of Sagalassos, Western Taurus Mountains, SW Turkey

Past vegetation change and the influence of climate change and anthropogenic pressure during the Holocene is constructed from a series of palynological records sampled from three locations within the territory of the antique site of Sagalassos. The disappearance of the original deciduous oak woodlands and increases in anthropogenic indicator species around 5300 and 4300 b.c. correspond with an increase in settlements in the region. A period of drought following the deforestation may have hampered the recovery of deciduous oak. The timing of the onset of the Bey?ehir Occupation Phase (BO-Phase) in the territory differs between locations, estimates ranging from ca. 1000–800 b.c. to the start of the Hellenistic period (334 b.c.). The most intense period of arboriculture coincides with the Roman and late-Roman periods. Increases in human pressure on the landscape as reflected in the pollen record correspond with an increased rate of sedimentation and fire activity. The timing of the end of the BO-Phase again differs between locations. Estimates range from the 4th century a.d. to the mid 7th century a.d., when a region-wide shift to dry environmental conditions is observed. Numerical analyses show that post BO-Phase vegetation change is largely driven by climate and displays a succession of dry and wet periods that coincided with well-defined European climate shifts, including the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age. Current agricultural activities in the region are of a very recent (20th century) origin.     

Facial image of Biblical Jews from Israel

The present report deals with reconstructing the facial shapes of ancient inhabitants of Israel based on their cranial remains. The skulls of a male from the Hellenistic period and a female from the Roman period have been reconstructed. They were restored using the most recently developed programs in anthropological facial reconstruction, especially that of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Balueva & Veselovskaya 2004). The basic craniometrical measurements of the two skulls were measured according to Martin & Saller (1957) and compared to the data from three ancient populations of Israel described by Arensburg et al. (1980): that of the Hellenistic period dating from 332 to 37 B.C., that of the Roman period, from 37 B.C. to 324 C.E., and that of the Byzantine period that continued until the Arab conquest in 640 C.E. Most of this osteological material was excavated in the Jordan River and the Dead Sea areas. A sample from the XVIIth century Jews from Prague (Matiegka 1926) was also used for osteometrical comparisons. The present study will characterize not only the osteological morphology of the material, but also the facial appearance of ancient inhabitants of Israel. From an anthropometric point of view, the two skulls studied here definitely belong to the same sample from the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine populations of Israel as well as from Jews from Prague. Based on its facial reconstruction, the male skull may belong to the large Mediterranean group that inhabited this area from historic to modern times. The female skull also exhibits all the Mediterranean features but, in addition, probably some equatorial (African) mixture manifested by the shape of the reconstructed nose and the facial prognatism.     

Tree line identification from pollen data: beyond the limit?

Aim The boreal tree line is a prominent biogeographic feature, the position of which reflects climatic conditions. Pollen is the key sensor used to reconstruct past tree line patterns. Our aims in this study were to investigate pollen–vegetation relationships at the boreal tree line and to assess the success of a modified version of the biomization method that incorporates pollen productivity and dispersal in distinguishing the tree line. Location Northern Canada (307 sites) and Alaska (316 sites). Methods The REVEALS method for estimating regional vegetation composition from pollen data was simplified to provide correction factors to account for differential production and dispersal of pollen among taxa. The REVEALS‐based correction factors were used to adapt the biomization method and applied as a set of experiments to pollen data from lake sediments and moss polsters from the boreal tree line. Proportions of forest and tundra predicted from modern pollen samples along two longitudinal transects were compared with those derived from a vegetation map by: (1) a tally of ‘correct’ versus ‘incorrect’ assignments using vegetation in the relevant map pixels, and (2) a comparison of the shape and position of north–south forest‐cover curves generated from all transect pixels and from pollen data. Possible causes of bias in the misclassifications were assessed. Results Correcting for pollen productivity alone gave fewest misclassifications and the closest estimate of the modern mapped tree line position (Canada, + 300 km; Alaska, + 10 km). In Canada success rates were c. 40–70% and all experiments over‐predicted forest cover. Most corrections improved results over uncorrected biomization; using only lakes improved success rates to c. 80%. In Alaska success rates were 70–80% and classification errors were more evenly distributed; there was little improvement over uncorrected biomization. Main conclusions Corrected biomization should improve broad‐scale reconstructions of spatial patterns in forest/non‐forest vegetation mosaics and across climate‐sensitive ecotones. The Canadian example shows this is particularly the case in regions affected by taxa with extremely high pollen productivity (such as Pinus). Improved representation of actual vegetation distribution is most likely if pollen data from lake sediments are used because the REVEALS algorithm is based on the pollen dynamics of lake‐based systems.     

Genetic diversity loss in a biodiversity hotspot: ancient DNA quantifies genetic decline and former connectivity in a critically endangered marsupial

The extent of genetic diversity loss and former connectivity between fragmented populations are often unknown factors when studying endangered species. While genetic techniques are commonly applied in extant populations to assess temporal and spatial demographic changes, it is no substitute for directly measuring past diversity using ancient DNA (aDNA). We analysed both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear microsatellite loci from 64 historical fossil and skin samples of the critically endangered Western Australian woylie (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi), and compared them with 231 (n = 152 for mtDNA) modern samples. In modern woylie populations 15 mitochondrial control region (CR) haplotypes were identified. Interestingly, mtDNA CR data from only 29 historical samples demonstrated 15 previously unknown haplotypes and detected an extinct divergent clade. Through modelling, we estimated the loss of CR mtDNA diversity to be between 46% and 91% and estimated this to have occurred in the past 2000–4000 years in association with a dramatic population decline. In addition, we obtained near‐complete 11‐loci microsatellite profiles from 21 historical samples. In agreement with the mtDNA data, a number of ‘new’ microsatellite alleles was only detected in the historical populations despite extensive modern sampling, indicating a nuclear genetic diversity loss >20%. Calculations of genetic diversity (heterozygosity and allelic rarefaction) showed that these were significantly higher in the past and that there was a high degree of gene flow across the woylie's historical range. These findings have an immediate impact on how the extant populations are managed and we recommend the implementation of an assisted migration programme to prevent further loss of genetic diversity. Our study demonstrates the value of integrating aDNA data into current‐day conservation strategies.     

Variation in wetland invertebrate communities in lowland acidic fens and swamps

1. Invertebrates were collected semi‐quantitatively from four relatively undisturbed wetlands in the west coast of New Zealand’s South Island: two acidic fens and two swamps. Samples were collected from up to four discrete habitats within each wetland: large open‐water channels, small leads (small, ill‐defined channels with emergent vegetation in them) and large (>10 m diameter) or small (<10 m diameter) ponds. Samples were also collected from different plant species within each wetland, each with different morphology, and from areas without vegetation. This was done to determine whether invertebrate communities varied more between‐wetlands than within‐wetlands, as the results had implications for future wetland monitoring programmes. 2. Principal components analysis of water chemistry data revealed striking differences in pH, conductivity and nutrients between the four wetlands. Not surprisingly, pH was lowest in one of the acidic fens, and highest in one of the swamps, where conductivity was also high. Midges (Tanytarsus, Tanypodinae, Orthocladiinae and Ceratopogonidae), nematodes, harpactacoid copepods and the damselfly Xanthocnemis dominated the invertebrate fauna. Orthoclad midges and mites were the most widespread taxa, found in 91 of 94 samples. Diptera were the most diverse invertebrate group, followed by Trichoptera and Crustacea. 3. Ordination analysis of the invertebrate data showed that the four wetlands supported different invertebrate communities. However, species composition did not change completely along the ordination axes, suggesting that a relatively species‐poor invertebrate fauna was found in the wetlands. Taxa such as molluscs were restricted to wetlands with high pH. Multi‐response permutation procedures (MRPP) was used to analyse resultant ordination scores to see how they differed according to five terms: ‘Wetland’, ‘Habitat’, ‘Growth Form’, ‘Morphology’ and ‘Plant’. Most of the sample separation along ordination axes reflected differences between wetland, although the ‘Habitat’ and ‘Plant’ terms also explained some of the variation. The ‘Growth Form’ and ‘Morphology’ terms had only minor effects on community composition. 4. A multivariate regression tree modelled invertebrate assemblages according to the five predictor terms. The resultant model explained 54.8% of the species variance. The ‘Wetland’ term contributed most to the explanatory power, followed by ‘Habitat’. ‘Growth type’ and ‘Morphology’ explained only a small amount of variance to the regression tree, while the different plant species explained none of the variation. 5. Variation in these New Zealand wetland invertebrate communities appears to be controlled most by large‐scale factors operating at the level of individual wetlands, although different habitats within individual wetlands contributed slightly to this variation. Based on these results, sampling programmes to describe wetland invertebrate communities do not need to sample specific habitats or plant types within a wetland. Instead, samples can be collected from a wide range of habitats within individual wetlands, and pooled. Within each habitat, it is unnecessary to collect individual samples from different macrophytes or un‐vegetated areas. Our results suggest that collecting replicate pooled samples from different habitats within each wetland will be sufficient to characterize the invertebrate assemblage of each wetland.     

Numerical analysis of surface and fossil pollen spectra from northern Fennoscandia

Aim Determination of the main directions of variance in an extensive data base of annual pollen deposition, and the relationship between pollen data from modified Tauber traps and palaeoecological data. Location Northern Finland and Norway. Methods Pollen analysis of annual samples from pollen traps and contiguous high‐resolution samples from a peat sequence. Numerical analysis (principal components analysis) of the resulting data. Results The main direction of variation in the trap data is due to the vegetation region in which each trap is located. A secondary direction of variation is due to the annual variability of pollen production of some of the tree taxa, especially Betula and Pinus. This annual variability is more conspicuous in ‘absolute’ data than it is in percentage data which, at this annual resolution, becomes more random. There are systematic differences, with respect to peat‐forming taxa, between pollen data from traps and pollen data from a peat profile collected over the same period of time. Main conclusions Annual variability in pollen production is rarely visible in fossil pollen samples because these cannot be sampled at precisely a 12‐month resolution. At near‐annual resolution sampling, it results in erratic percentage values which do not reflect changes in vegetation. Profiles sampled at near annual resolution are better analysed in terms of pollen accumulation rates with the realization that even these do not record changes in plant abundance but changes in pollen abundance. However, at the coarser temporal resolution common in most fossil samples it does not mask the origin of the pollen in terms of its vegetation region. Climate change may not be recognizable from pollen assemblages until the change has persisted in the same direction sufficiently long enough to alter the flowering (pollen production) pattern of the dominant trees.     

Modern vegetation–pollen–climate relationships for the Pampa grasslands of Argentina

Aim To analyse the relationships between potential natural vegetation, pollen and climate in order to improve the interpretation of fossil pollen records and provide the background for future quantitative palaeoclimatic reconstructions. Location Pampa grasslands of Argentina, between 33–41° S and 56–67° W. Methods Modern pollen data were obtained from a pollen data base developed by the Grupo de Investigación de Paleoecología y Palinología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina (143 surface samples and 17 pollen types). Analysis of pollen and climate data involved multivariate statistics (cluster analysis and principal components analysis), scatter diagrams, Pearson’s correlation and isopoll mapping. Results Vegetation patterns at regional scales (grasslands and xerophytic woodlands) and local scales (edaphic communities) were identified by cluster analysis of pollen surface samples. The main climatic variables that appear to constrain the vegetation distribution and abundance of taxa are mean annual precipitation, annual effective precipitation and summer temperature. Individual pollen types such as Chenopodiaceae, Apiaceae, Cyperaceae, Prosopis, Schinus, Condalia microphylla and other xerophytic taxa are good indicators of moisture regime. Many pollen types are significantly correlated with summer temperature. The modern vegetation–pollen–climate relationships vary in a broadly predictable manner, supporting the contention that fossil pollen assemblages can be related to particular climatic characteristics. Main conclusions An expanded suite of modern analogues facilitated new insights into vegetation–pollen–climate relationships at the regional scale in Pampa grasslands. Relationships between individual pollen types and climate are appraised at a regional scale and new modern analogues are presented. The results provide the basis for improved vegetation and climate reconstruction from fossil records of the study area.     

Pollen from archaeological layers and cultural landscape reconstruction: Case studies from the Bradano valley (Basilicata,southern Italy)

Abstract

The article aims at presenting some aspects of environmental reconstruction through pollen analysis from archaeological contexts. The anthropogenic pollen transport into archaeological sites is regarded as an interesting tool to improve knowledge on flora and vegetation in the area of influence of sites. The zoophilous plants can be found more easily than in the regional airborne pollen rain where anemophilous pollen is generally overrepresented. Moreover, pollen from archaeological contexts is mainly a result of the cultural landscape shaped by human activities. Two case studies from the Bradano Valley (Basilicata, southern Italy), rich in archaeological sites dating altogether from the Middle Bronze Age to the Medieval age, are reported. Difesa San Biagio and its surroundings is one of the biggest settlements of the area, settled in early times by Enotrians. Altojanni is an extended area mainly frequented in Hellenistic, Roman late Imperial and Medieval times. A very open landscape, and clear signs of plant exploitation and cultivation, breeding and settlements were present in the two sites. Though samples are disturbed and preservation problems are sometimes observed, the main characters of pollen spectra are recurrent. High percentages of Poaceae and Cichorioideae, together with coprophilous fungal spores, strongly suggest a long tradition of pastoral activities. These case study examples suggest that human activities would have produced a fairly xeric environment.     

Fungal palaeodiversity revealed using high‐throughput metabarcoding of ancient DNA from arctic permafrost

The taxonomic and ecological diversity of ancient fungal communities was assessed by combining next generation sequencing and metabarcoding of DNA preserved in permafrost. Twenty‐six sediment samples dated 16 000–32 000 radiocarbon years old from two localities in Siberia were analysed for fungal ITS. We detected 75 fungal OTUs from 21 orders representing three phyla, although rarefaction analyses suggested that the full diversity was not recovered despite generating an average of 6677 ± 3811 (mean ± SD) sequences per sample and that preservation bias likely has considerable effect on the recovered DNA. Most OTUs (75.4%) represented ascomycetes. Due to insufficient sequencing depth, DNA degradation and putative preservation biases in our samples, the recovered taxa probably do not represent the complete historic fungal community, and it is difficult to determine whether the fungal communities varied geographically or experienced a composition shift within the period of 16 000–32 000 bp . However, annotation of OTUs to functional ecological groups provided a wealth of information on the historic communities. About one‐third of the OTUs are presumed plant‐associates (pathogens, saprotrophs and endophytes) typical of graminoid‐ and forb‐rich habitats. We also detected putative insect pathogens, coprophiles and keratinophiles likely associated with ancient insect and herbivore faunas. The detection of putative insect pathogens, mycoparasites, aquatic fungi and endophytes broadens our previous knowledge of the diversity of fungi present in Beringian palaeoecosystems. A large group of putatively psychrophilic/psychrotolerant fungi was also detected, most likely representing a modern, metabolically active fungal community.     

The origins of nations

Although the nation, as a named community of history and culture, possessing a common territory, economy, mass education system and common legal rights, is a relatively modern phenomenon, its origins can be traced back to pre‐modern ethnic communities. Such named ethnies with their myths of common descent, common memories, culture and solidarity, and associations with a homeland, are found in both the ancient and the medieval periods in many areas of the world. Two kinds of ethnie are important for the origins and routes of the formation of nations. Territorial, ‘civic’ nations tend to develop from aristocratic ‘lateral’ ethnies through a process of ‘bureaucratic incorporation’ of outlying regions and lower classes into the ethnic culture of the upper classes, as occurred in France, England and Spain. The more numerous ‘ethnic’ nations, on the other hand, have emerged from demotic ‘vertical’ ethnies through processes of cultural mobilization that turn an often religiously defined and passive community into an active, politicized nation. Here the intellectuals and professionals replace the state as agents of popular mobilization, creating new ‘maps’ and ‘moralities’ through the uses of landscape and golden ages of a rediscovered and reconstructed communal past, as in Ireland, Finland and Switzerland. It is from these often ancient ties and sentiments that modern nations draw much of their power and durability today.     

Genetic and landscape characterization of ancient autochthonous olive trees in northern Italy

Several ancient olive plants with different genetic, agronomic and morphological characteristics are widespread in the Emilia-Romagna region. In this study, details of 206 trees located in four provinces were collected and their phytometric traits were recorded. Easily recognizable varieties were identified, while plants of uncertain genetic identity were submitted for molecular analysis with SSR markers and compared with cultivars widespread in central Italy and Emilia-Romagna. The genetic analyses showed that most of the ancient olive trees belonged to 10 cultivars that are already characterized, with different cases of intra-varietal clones. The remaining accessions belonged to 19 different genotypes of unknown origin. The highest percentage of policormic trees was found in the Bologna and Rimini provinces. A high percentage of plants located under unfavourable aspects (west to east) was found only in the Rimini territory, which presents peculiar and milder climatic conditions compared to the other provinces. Slope appeared not to be a limiting factor for tree survival. The information obtained could help the rational reintroduction of olive growing in suitable areas of Emilia-Romagna, with the subsequent economic advantages, erosion preservation and germplasm enrichment.     

Anthropogenic and climatic impacts on surface pollen assemblages along a precipitation gradient in north‐eastern China

Aim To understand the scenarios of ‘anthropogenic biomes’ that integrate human and ecological systems, we need to explore the impacts of climate and human disturbance on vegetation in the past and present. Interactions among surface pollen, modern vegetation and human activities along climate and land‐use gradients are tested to evaluate the natural and anthropogenic forces shaping the modern vegetation, and hence to aid the reconstruction of vegetation and climate in the past. This in turn will help with future predictions. Location The North‐east China Transect (NECT) in north‐eastern China. Methods We analysed 33 surface pollen samples and 213 quadrats across four vegetation zones along the moisture/land‐use gradients of the NECT. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and redundancy analysis (RDA) of 52 pollen taxa and three environmental variables were used to distinguish anthropogenic and climatic factors that affect surface pollen assemblages along the NECT. Results The 33 surface samples are divided into four pollen zones (forest, meadow steppe, typical steppe and desert steppe) corresponding to major vegetation types in the NECT. Variations in pollen ratios of fern/herb (F/H), Artemisia/Chenopodiaceae (A/C) and arboreal pollen/non‐arboreal pollen (AP/NAP) represent the vegetation and precipitation gradient along the NECT. DCA and RDA analyses suggest that surface pollen assemblages are significantly influenced by the precipitation gradient. Changes in the abundance of Chenopodiaceae pollen are related to both human activities and precipitation. Main conclusions Surface pollen assemblages, fossil pollen records, archaeological evidence and historical documents in northern China show that a large increase of Chenopodiaceae pollen indicates human‐caused vegetation degradation in sandy habitats. The A/C ratio is a good indicator of climatic aridity, but should be used in conjunction with multiple proxies of human activities and climate change in the pollen‐based reconstruction of anthropogenic biomes.     

Modern surface pollen assemblages from the Middle and High Atlas,Morocco: insights into pollen representation and transport

Thirty-three modern surface samples were collected in the environmentally and climatologically contrasting regions of the Middle and High Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Samples representing forest and steppe montane environments (1935–2760 m above sea level) are clustered around study sites at Lake Tislit (High Atlas, semi-arid oro-Mediterranean bioclime) and Lake Sidi Ali and Michliffen (Middle Atlas, sub-humid montane Mediterranean bioclime). Good discrimination between regional pollen spectra is evident, with Middle Atlas samples reflecting higher arboreal cover (Cedrus and evergreen Quercus) and High Atlas samples with high abundances of non-arboreal taxa, including Artemisia and Fabaceae. These four taxa (Cedrus, evergreen Quercus, Artemisia and Fabaceae) are furthermore shown to be reliable indicators of local source vegetation within a 100 m² quadrat, taking into account threshold abundances of 7%, 20%, 4% and 10%, respectively. Deciduous Quercus, Olea and Phillyrea show long-distance pollen dispersal across both regions, contributing to non-trivial arboreal pollen (AP) values of up to 35% (typically 20–30%) in the High Atlas spectra. In the Middle Atlas, AP values of 40 to 50% occur in open sampling locations and > 60% under forest canopy cover. These insights should be taken into account when interpreting ancient pollen spectra from regional lakes and bogs for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction.     

Analysis of the pollen allergen content of twelve olive cultivars grown in Portugal

Olive pollen presents intercultivar variability as regards to its antigenic and allergenic composition. In this study, we report the presence of differences among the SDS-PAGE pollen protein profiles of twelve Portuguese olive cultivars. Though most soluble proteins from these extracts seemed similar, three bands of about 18, 20 and 22 kDa presented sharp differences in intensity among the cultivars analyzed. The dissimilarity of patient’s sera reactivity to these protein extracts and the presence of several allergens already characterized (Ole e 1, Ole e 2, Ole e 5 and Ole e 9) in the extracts were also investigated. Epidemiological data indicated that 53.3 % out of the 428 patients analyzed with reactivity to pollen extracts, presented specific IgE levels to Olea europaea. A representative number of these sera were assayed in immunoblotting experiments. The cultivars ‘Galega’ and ‘Conserva de Elvas’ displayed low reactivity to the sera of atopic patients, whereas the extracts corresponding to the cultivars ‘Cobrançosa’, ‘Ascolana’ and ‘Verdeal de Serpa’ led to higher IgE reactivity. The use of antibodies to the allergens Ole e 1, Ole e 2, Ole e 5 and Ole e 9 in immunoblotting experiments also allowed cultivar discrimination. The cultivar ‘Verdeal de Serpa’ presented the highest Ole e 1, Ole e 5 and Ole e 9 allergen loads but the lowest Ole e 2. ‘Carrasquenha’ was the second cultivar in terms of the higher allergen content. Oppositely, the lowest allergen loads were those of the cultivars ‘Galega’ and ‘Conserva de Elvas’ coincidentally with their low IgE reactivity. These data may help interpret physiological differences in pollen performance for successful olive fertilization and, moreover, to better define future strategies for allergy diagnosis and treatment by specific immunotherapy.     

The origin and temporal development of an ancient cultural landscape

Aim To reconstruct the Late Glacial and Holocene vegetation history of western Tasmania and to test the long‐held notion of a replacement of forest by moorland during the mid to late Holocene in western Tasmania, Australia. Location Western Tasmania, Australia. Methods Fossil pollen data were screened with a modern pollen dataset using detrended correspondence analysis and charcoal data were analysed using significance tests. Results At the landscape scale, the distribution of vegetation types in western Tasmania has remained remarkably stable through the post‐glacial period. Open moorland has dominated the landscape since the Late Glacial, while rain forest expanded at that time in to areas which it occupies today. Vegetation development in the Holocene is markedly different and charcoal values are significantly higher when compared with those in previous interglacial periods. Main conclusions The dominant paradigm of a replacement of rain forest by moorland across western Tasmania during the mid to late Holocene is not supported by this regional analysis. The arrival of humans in Tasmania during the Last Glacial Stage provided an ignition source that was independent of climate, and burning by humans through the Late Glacial period deflected vegetation development and facilitated the establishment of open moorland in regions occupied by rain forest during previous interglacial periods. It is concluded that the present dominance of the landscape of western Tasmania by open moorland is the direct result of human activity during the Late Glacial and that this region represents an ancient cultural landscape.     

Modern pollen–vegetation relationships in subarctic southern Greenland and the interpretation of fossil pollen data from the Norse landnám

Aim The objective of this paper is to explore the relationships that exist between vegetation and modern pollen rain in the open, largely treeless landscape of subarctic Greenland. The implications of these results for the interpretation of fossil pollen assemblages from the time of the Norse landnám are then examined. Location The study area is the sheep farming district of Qassiarsuk in the subarctic, subcontinental vegetational and climatic zone of southern Greenland (61° N, 45° W). Between c.ad 1000–1500 this region was contained within the Norse Eastern Settlement. Methods Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) of harmonized plant–pollen data sets is used to compare plant cover in 64 vegetation quadrats with pollen assemblages obtained from moss polsters at matching locations. Presence/absence data are also used to calculate indices of association, over‐ and under‐representation for pollen types. Results Good correspondence between paired vegetation–pollen samples occurs in many cases, particularly in locations where Salix glauca–Betula glandulosa dwarf shrub heath is dominant, and across herbaceous field boundaries and meadows. Pollen samples are found to be poor at reflecting actual ground cover where ericales or Juniperus communis are the locally dominant shrubs. Dominant or ubiquitous taxa within this landscape (Betula, Salix and Poaceae) are found to be over‐represented in pollen assemblages, as are several of the ‘weeds’ generally accepted as introduced by the Norse settlers. Main conclusions Due to their over‐representation in the pollen rain, many of the Norse apophytes and introductions (e.g. Rumex acetosa and R. acetosella) traditionally used to infer human activity in Greenland should be particularly sensitive indicators for landnám, allowing early detection of Norse activity in fossil assemblages. Pteridophyte spores are found to be disassociated with the ground cover of ferns and clubmosses, but are over‐represented in pollen assemblages, indicating extra‐local or regional sources and long residence times in soil/sediment profiles for these microfossils. A pollen record for Hordeum‐type registered in close proximity to a field containing barley suggests that summer temperatures under the current climatic regime are, at least on occasion, sufficient to allow flowering.