小鼠丝氨酸消旋酶的克隆、表达与纯化

丝氨酸消旋酶(Serine Racemase,SR)是一种磷酸吡多醛依赖酶,在ATP和Mg2+的辅助下,催化L型丝氨酸转变为D型丝氨酸,D-丝氨酸通过结合在NMDA受体的Gly结合位点,调节其生理功能。本文将小鼠来源的丝氨酸消旋酶基因克隆至原核表达载体pMAL-C2上,构建重组质粒pMAL-C2-SR。将重组质粒转入E.coil BL21(DE3)宿主菌中,经IPTG诱导,获得重组表达。重组蛋白带有MBP标签,经Amylose亲合柱和Sephacryl S-200纯化,获得电泳纯的目的蛋白。     

D-丝氨酸在神经元-胶质细胞间通讯的新进展

D-丝氨酸(D-Ser)是一种重要的胶质细胞递质,也是N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(NMDA)受体NR1亚基上"甘氨酸位点"的主要内源性配体,具有比甘氨酸更高的结合效能.D-Ser在体内主要由丝氨酸消旋酶将L-丝氨酸消旋而来,受多种因素调控,在中枢神经系统参与调节突触可塑性、感觉信息传递、神经发育及神经兴奋性毒性等生理及病理过程,并成为阿尔采末病(AD)等神经系统疾病新的治疗靶点.本文对D-Ser在中枢神经系统的产生、代谢、生理及病理作用的研究予以综述.     

丝氨酸消旋酶在中枢神经系统中的研究进展

中枢神经系统中,丝氨酸消旋酶是5'吡哆醛依赖性酶,通过合成调控D型丝氨酸,参与N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸受体介导的神经发生、突触可塑性及学习记忆的调节。丝氨酸消旋酶表达与活性可以通过转录、翻译、翻译后修饰,小分子配基与蛋白相互作用,亚细胞分布多种方式调节。丝氨酸消旋酶失调影响了精神分裂症、脑损伤及神经退行性疾病等多种中枢神经系统疾病。本文简要介绍丝氨酸消旋酶的结构、分布、调节因素和在中枢神经系统中的生理病理功能,为神经及精神疾病的治疗和药物开发提供了新的思路。     

NMDA受体与鸣禽鸣唱学习记忆

N-2-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(N-methy-2-D-asparticacid,NMDA)受体,是一种分布在突触后膜上的离子通道蛋白,受突触电压和神经递质(如谷氨酸、甘氨酸、NMDA等)的双重调控,是参与学习与记忆过程的关键物质.鸣禽的鸣唱是一种习得性行为,是在特定的学习敏感期依赖听觉经验完成的.对近年来鸣禽NMDA受体与鸣禽鸣唱学习的研究进展进行了综述.     

稻属中一个高度保守和组成型表达酪氨酸／丝氨酸－酸酸双特性蛋白激酶基因的克隆与分析

从水稻中克隆了一个在稻属植物中高度保守和组成型表达的丝氨酸／苏氨酸蛋白激酶基因（OsSTK）。该基因包含两个外显子和一个114bp的小内含子序列,预测编码一个419个氨基酸的蛋白质。该基因推导的氨基酸序列与其它已知序列的一致性均低于52％。利用从不同种和类型的野生稻克隆的部分该基因序列构建的系统树与野生稻的分类和进化关系相一致。OSPKN-端拥有一段富含丝氨酸、碱性氨基酸和带电荷氨基酸的特异性导肽序列,其中包含“GDGDGDGDG”短重复序列。由于该基因蛋白激酶结构域中的VIb,VIII和XI亚结构域中同时具有酪氨酸蛋白激酶和丝氨酸／苏氨酸蛋白激酶的特性,推测该基因可能同时具有催化酪氨酸和丝氨酸、苏氨酸磷酸化的双重功能。     

NMDA受体与中枢神经系统的发育

离子型谷氨酸受体分为NMDA型和非NMDA型两类,其中NMDA型受体与中枢神经系统发育关系密切。本文综述了NMDA受体的分子特性及NMDA受体五种亚单位NR1、NR2A、NR2B、NR2C和NR2D在动物出生后脑内的时空表达;NMDA受体亚单位在发育中的作用以及NMDA受体活性的胞内调节机制。     

黄曲酰化酶拆分酰化-DL-氨基酸及D型氨基酸的制备

<正> 酶是生物细胞合成的具有高效专一催化活力的一类特殊蛋白质。利用酶族中酰化酶拆分化学法合成或消旋的D L-氨基酸。可以得到纯的L型和D型的氨基酸。通常用于工业生产的酰化酶有猪肾酰化酶。淀粉酰化酶、黄曲酰化酶等。在拆分D L型甲硫氨酸、亮氨酸、缬氨酸、苯丙氨酸、丙氨酸、色氨酸、苄基丝氨酸等几十种氨基酸中,L型氨基酸产率为50～     

受体丝氨酸／苏氨酸蛋白激酶

近几年证实有几种受体具有丝氨酸／苏氨酸激酶活性,它们都为单一的跨膜蛋白,胞外部位较小,胞内含有公认的丝氨酸／苏氨酸激酶的共同序列,为一类新发现的受体型激酶,TGF－β受体I,II型为典型的受体丝氨酸／苏氨酸蛋白激酶,它们在传递胞外信息时可能要比受体酷氨酸激酶复杂,需要几种受体共同作用才能完成。     

论化石氨基酸外消旋比率与纬度的梯度相关关系

成岩温度史不相同的剖面中,标本的氨基酸外消旋比率不可能直接进行对比.为了便于磺向对比,根据氨基酸外消旋动力学原理,对长白山孤山屯、陕西洛川、南京三山矶和福建占雷头4个剖面中贝壳化石及沉积物的异亮氨酸D/L比率进行了外推对比,发现同时代的跨纬度剖面中标本的氨基酸D/L.比率与其纬度的梯度成负相关关系.当前研究有可能为氨基酸外消旋比率的横向对比,跨纬度的不同区域的古温度、古生态的研究提供理论依据.     

稻属中一个高度保守和组成型表达酪氨酸丝氨酸-酸酸双特性蛋白激酶基因的克隆与分析

从水稻中克隆了一个在稻属植物中高度保守和组成型表达的丝氨酸&#1089839;苏氨酸蛋白激酶基因(OsSTK)。该基因包含两个外显子和一个114 bp 的小内含子序列, 预测编码一个419 个氨基酸的蛋白质。该基因推导的氨基酸序列与其它已知序列的一致性均低于52%。利用从不同种和类型的野生稻克隆的部分该基因序列构建的系统树与野生稻的分类和进化关系相一致。OSPK N-端拥有一段富含丝氨酸、碱性氨基酸和带电荷氨基酸的特异性导肽序列, 其中包含“GDGDGDGDG”短重复序列。由于该基因蛋白激酶结构域中的VIb , VIII 和XI 亚结构域中同时具有酪氨酸蛋白激酶和丝氨酸&#1089839;苏氨酸蛋白激酶的特性, 推测该基因可能同时具有催化酪氨酸和丝氨酸、苏氨酸磷酸化的双重功能。     

Neurobiology through the looking-glass: D-serine as a new glial-derived transmitter

D-Amino acids have been known to be present in bacteria for more than 50 years, but only recently they were identified in mammals. The occurrence of D-amino acids in mammals challenge classic concepts in biology in which only L-amino acids would be present or thought to play important roles. Recent discoveries uncovered a role of endogenous D-serine as a putative glial-derived transmitter that regulates glutamatergic neurotransmission in mammalian brain. Free D-serine levels in the brain are about one third of L-serine values and its extracellular concentration is higher than many common L-amino acids. D-Serine occurs in protoplasmic astrocytes, a class of glial cells that ensheath the synapses and modulate neuronal activity. Biochemical and electrophysiological studies suggest that endogenous D-serine is a physiological modulator at the co-agonist site of NMDA-type of glutamate receptors. We previously showed that D-serine is synthesized by a glial serine racemase, a novel enzyme converting L- to D-serine in mammalian brain. The enzyme requires pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and it was the first racemase to be cloned from eucaryotes. Inhibitors of serine racemase have therapeutic implications for pathological processes in which over-stimulation of NMDA receptors takes place, such as stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we review the role of endogenous D-serine in modulating NMDA neurotransmission, its biosynthetic apparatus and the potential usefulness of serine racemase inhibitors as a novel neuroprotective strategy to decrease glutamate/NMDA excitotoxicity.     

D-Amino Acids as Putative Neurotransmitters: Focus on D-Serine

Of the twenty amino acids in the mammalian body, only serine and aspartate occur in D-configuration as well as L-configuration in significant amount. D-serine is selectively concentrated in the brain, localized to protoplasmic astrocytes that ensheath synapses and distributed similarly to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors. D-serine has been found to function as an endogenous ligand for the glycine site of the NMDA receptor. Evidences for this include the greater potency of D-serine to activate this site than glycine, and D-amino acid oxidase, which degrades D-serine as well as other neutral D-amino acids, markedly attenuates NMDA neurotransmission. D-serine is also formed by serine racemase, a recently cloned enzyme that converts L-serine to D-serine. Thus, in many ways D-serine fulfills criteria for defining its functionality as a neurotransmitter and challenges the dogma relating to neurotransmission, for it is the unnatural isomeric form of an amino acid derived from glia rather than neurons.     

D-amino acids in the brain: D-serine in neurotransmission and neurodegeneration

The mammalian brain contains unusually high levels of D-serine, a D-amino acid previously thought to be restricted to some bacteria and insects. In the last few years, studies from several groups have demonstrated that D-serine is a physiological co-agonist of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) type of glutamate receptor -- a key excitatory neurotransmitter receptor in the brain. D-Serine binds with high affinity to a co-agonist site at the NMDA receptors and, along with glutamate, mediates several important physiological and pathological processes, including NMDA receptor transmission, synaptic plasticity and neurotoxicity. In recent years, biosynthetic, degradative and release pathways for D-serine have been identified, indicating that D-serine may function as a transmitter. At first, D-serine was described in astrocytes, a class of glial cells that ensheathes neurons and release several transmitters that modulate neurotransmission. This led to the notion that D-serine is a glia-derived transmitter (or gliotransmitter). However, recent data indicate that serine racemase, the D-serine biosynthetic enzyme, is widely expressed in neurons of the brain, suggesting that D-serine also has a neuronal origin. We now review these findings, focusing on recent questions regarding the roles of glia versus neurons in d-serine signaling.     

Simultaneous measurement of D-serine dehydratase and d-amino acid oxidase activities by the detection of 2-oxo-acid formation with reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) play critical roles in excitatory synaptic transmission in the vertebrate central nervous system. NMDARs need D-serine for their channel activities in various brain regions. In mammalian brains, D-serine is produced from L-serine by serine racemase and degraded by D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) to 3-hydroxypyruvate. In avian organs, such as the kidney, in addition to DAO, D-serine is also degraded to pyruvate by D-serine dehydratase (DSD). To examine the roles of these two enzymes in avian brains, we developed a method to simultaneously measure DAO and DSD activities. First, the keto acids produced from D-serine were derivatized with 3-methyl-2-benzothiazolinone hydrazone to stable azines. Second, the azine derivatives were quantified by means of reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography using 2-oxoglutarate as an internal standard. This method allowed the simultaneous detection of DAO and DSD activities as low as 100 pmol/min/mg protein. Chicken brain showed only DSD activities (0.4+/-0.2 nmol/min/mg protein) whereas rat brain exhibited only DAO activities (0.7+/-0.1 nmol/min/mg protein). This result strongly suggests that DSD plays the same role in avian brains, as DAO plays in mammalian brains. The present method is applicable to other keto acids producing enzymes with minor modifications.     

Serine racemase modulates intracellular D-serine levels through an alpha,beta-elimination activity

Mammalian brain contains high levels of d-serine, an endogenous co-agonist of N-methyl D-aspartate type of glutamate receptors. D-Serine is synthesized by serine racemase, a brain enriched enzyme converting L- to D-serine. Degradation of D-serine is achieved by D-amino acid oxidase, but this enzyme is not present in forebrain areas that are highly enriched in D-serine. We now report that serine racemase catalyzes the degradation of cellular D-serine itself, through the alpha,beta-elimination of water. The enzyme also catalyzes water alpha,beta-elimination with L-serine and L-threonine. alpha,beta-Elimination with these substrates is observed both in vitro and in vivo. To investigate further the role of alpha,beta-elimination in regulating cellular D-serine, we generated a serine racemase mutant displaying selective impairment of alpha,beta-elimination activity (Q155D). Levels of D-serine synthesized by the Q155D mutant are several-fold higher than the wild-type both in vitro and in vivo. This suggests that the alpha,beta-elimination reaction limits the achievable D-serine concentration in vivo. Additional mutants in vicinal residues (H152S, P153S, and N154F) similarly altered the partition between the alpha,beta-elimination and racemization reactions. alpha,beta-Elimination also competes with the reverse serine racemase reaction in vivo. Although the formation of L- from D-serine is readily detected in Q155D mutant-expressing cells incubated with physiological D-serine concentrations, reversal with wild-type serine racemase-expressing cells required much higher D-serine concentration. We propose that alpha,beta-elimination provides a novel mechanism for regulating intracellular D-serine levels, especially in brain areas that do not possess D-amino acid oxidase activity. Extracellular D-serine is more stable toward alpha,beta-elimination, likely due to physical separation from serine racemase and its elimination activity.     

Human serine racemase: moleular cloning, genomic organization and functional analysis

High levels of D-serine are found in mammalian brain, where it is an endogenous agonist of the strichinine-insensitive site of N-methyl D-aspartate type of glutamate receptors. D-serine is enriched in protoplasmic astrocytes that occur in gray matter areas of the brain and was shown to be synthesized from L-serine. We now report cloning and expression of human serine racemase, an enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of D-serine from L-serine. The enzyme displays a high homology to the murine serine racemase. It contains a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate attachment sequence similar to bacterial biosynthetic threonine dehydratase. Northern-blot analysis show high levels of human serine racemase in areas known to contain large amounts of endogenous D-serine, such as hippocampus and corpus callosum. Robust synthesis of D-serine was detected in cells transfected with human serine racemase, demonstrating the conservation of D-amino acid metabolism in humans. Serine racemase may be a therapeutic target in psychiatric diseases as supplementation of D-serine greatly improves schizophrenia symptoms. We identify the human serine racemase genomic structure and show that the gene encompasses seven exons and localizes to chromosome 17q13.3. Identification of the intron-exon boundaries of the human serine racemase gene will be useful to search for mutations in neuropsychiatric disorders.     

Potential role for astroglial D-amino acid oxidase in extracellular D-serine metabolism and cytotoxicity

D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) is a flavoenzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of D-amino acids. In the brain, gene expression of DAO is detected in astrocytes. Among the possible substrates of DAO in vivo, D-serine is proposed to be a neuromodulator of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. In a search for the physiological role of DAO in the brain, we investigated the metabolism of extracellular D-serine in glial cells. Here we show that after D-serine treatment, rat primary type-1 astrocytes exhibited increased cell death. In order to enhance the enzyme activity of DAO in cells, we established stable rat C6 glial cells overexpressing mouse DAO designated as C6/DAO. Treatment with a high dose of D-serine led to the production of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) followed by apoptosis in C6/DAO cells. Among the amino acids tested, D-serine specifically exhibited a significant cell death-inducing effect. DAO inhibitors, i.e., sodium benzoate and chlorpromazine, partially prevented the death of C6/DAO cells treated with D-serine, indicating the involvement of DAO activity in d-serine metabolism. Overall, we consider that extracellular D-serine can gain access to intracellular DAO, being metabolized to produce H(2)O(2). These results support the proposal that astroglial DAO plays an important role in metabolizing a neuromodulator, D-serine.     

Analysis of free D-serine in mammals and its biological relevance

D-Serine is a unique endogenous substance enriched in the brain at the exceptionally high concentrations as a free D-amino acid in mammals throughout their life. Peripheral tissues and blood contain low or trace levels of the D-amino acid. In the nervous systems, D-serine appears to act as an intrinsic coagonist for the N-methyl-D-aspartate type glutamate receptor (NMDA receptor) based upon the following characteristics: (i) D-serine stereoselectively binds to and stimulates the glycine-regulatory site of the NMDA receptor consisting of GRIN1/GRIN2 subunits more potently than glycine with an affinity and ED50 at high nanomolar ranges, (ii) the selective elimination of D-serine in brain tissues attenuates the NMDA receptor functions, indicating an indispensable role in physiological activation of the glutamate receptor, and (iii) the distribution of D-serine is uneven and closely correlated with that of the binding densities of the various NMDA receptor sites, and especially of the GRIN2B subunit in the brain. Moreover, d-serine exerts substantial influence on the GRIN1/GRIN3-NMDA and δ2 glutamate receptor. In the brain and retina, metabolic processes of D-serine, such as biosynthesis, extracellular release, uptake, and degradation, are observed and some candidate molecules that mediate these processes have been isolated. The fact that the mode of extracellular release of D-serine in the brain differs from that of classical neurotransmitters is likely to be related to the detection of D-serine in both glial cells and neurons, suggesting that d-serine signals could be required for the glia-synapse interaction. Moreover, the findings from the basic experiments and clinical observations support the views that the signaling system of endogenous free D-serine plays important roles, at least, through the action on the NMDA receptors in the brain wiring development and the regulation of higher brain functions, including cognitive, emotional and sensorimotor function. Based upon these data, aberrant D-serine-NMDA receptor interactions have been considered to be involved in the pathophysiology of a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia and ischemic neuronal cell death. The molecular and cellular mechanisms for regulating the D-serine signals in the nervous system are, therefore, suitable targets for studies aiming to elucidate the causes of neuropsychiatric disorders and for the development of new treatments for intractable neuropsychiatric symptoms.     

D-Serine as a putative glial neurotransmitter

Abundant recent evidence favors a neurotransmitter/neuromodulator role for D-serine. D-serine is synthesized from L-serine by serine racemase in astrocytic glia that ensheath synapses, especially in regions of the brain that are enriched in NMDA-glutamate receptors. D-serine is more potent than glycine at activating the 'glycine' site of these receptors. Moreover, selective degradation of D-serine but not glycine by D-amino acid oxidase markedly reduces NMDA neurotransmission. D-serine appears to be released physiologically in response to activation by glutamate of AMPA-glutamate receptors on D-serine-containing glia. This causes glutamate-receptor-interacting protein, which binds serine racemase, to stimulate enzyme activity and D-serine release. Thus, glutamate triggers the release of D-serine so that the two amino acids can act together on postsynaptic NMDA receptors. D-serine also plays a role in neural development, being released from Bergmann glia to chemokinetically enhance the migration of granule cell cerebellar neurons from the external to the internal granular layer.