西方蜜蜂磁受体基因AmMagR的克隆及表达分析

本研究旨在克隆西方蜜蜂Apis mellifera磁受体基因AmMagR的序列,并分析该基因在工蜂不同日龄、不同组织中的表达特征,以期为该基因的功能研究提供理论基础。以西方蜜蜂工蜂为材料,提取其总RNA,通过RT-PCR技术克隆西方蜜蜂MagR基因的序列;利用多种生物信息学软件对其核酸及氨基酸序列分析;采用实时荧光定量PCR技术(qPCR)分析在西方蜜蜂工蜂不同日龄(1日龄、5日龄和21日龄)和不同组织(头部、胸部和腹部)中MagR基因的相对表达量。克隆到西方蜜蜂MagR基因,并命名为AmMagR(GenBank登录号:MH635411),其序列长度为748 bp,编码区长390 bp,编码130个氨基酸,其蛋白质分子量为14.142 kDa,理论等电点为9.06,无信号肽,无跨膜结构,且在第24～126位氨基酸之间得到一个结构域Fe-S_biosyn。系统发育树显示,西方蜜蜂AmMagR与小蜜蜂Apis florae AfIscA(IscA别称MagR)、中华蜜蜂Apis cerana cerana AcIscA基因聚成一支。荧光定量PCR结果表明,AmMagR基因在西方蜜蜂不同日龄的工蜂头部、胸部和腹部均有表达。5日龄工蜂的相对表达量最高,5日龄工蜂头部和胸部的AmMagR基因表达量显著高于1日龄(P0.05)和21日龄(P0.05),腹部AmMagR基因表达量显著高于21日龄(P0.05),但与1日龄的比较差异不显著(P0.05)。1日龄、5日龄和21日龄工蜂胸部的AmMagR基因表达量均显著高于头部和腹部(P0.05);1日龄工蜂头部AmMagR基因表达量均高于腹部(P0.05),但5日龄和21日龄工蜂AmMagR基因在头部与腹部的表达量无显著差异(P0.05)。明确了该基因在西方蜜蜂工蜂不同日龄和不同组织中的表达模式,并推测AmMagR可能参与了西方蜜蜂的定位、归巢过程。     

三种化学感受蛋白在意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂中的时空表达水平研究

【目的】化学感受蛋白(Chemonsensory proteins,CSPs)是一类可溶性小分子蛋白质,广泛存在于昆虫的触角及其他感受器中,参与昆虫的化学感受行为,在昆虫化学感受系统中发挥重要的作用,本文旨在探究Amel-CSP1、Amel-CSP2和Amel-CSP6在意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂中的时空表达水平及生理功能。【方法】首先通过荧光定量PCR技术检测了Amel-CSP1、Amel-CSP2和Amel-CSP6在哺育蜂和采集蜂的触角、头部、胸部、腹部和腿的表达水平;然后又对不同日龄工蜂(1,6,12,18,28日龄)触角中Amel-CSP1、Amel-CSP2和Amel-CSP6的表达情况进行检测。【结果】(1)Amel-CSP1在工蜂的触角和头部都有较高的表达水平,其在工蜂触角中的表达水平显著高于其他部位(P0.05);Amel-CSP2在哺育蜂触角中表达水平最高,显著高于其他部位(P0.05),而其在采集蜂头部的表达水平最高,显著高于其他部位(P0.05);Amel-CSP6在哺育蜂和采集蜂的头部表达量最高,其在触角、胸部也有较高表达水平。(2)Amel-CSP1在工蜂触角中的表达水平随日龄的增长而增加,其在28日龄的表达水平显著高于其他日龄(P0.05);Amel-CSP2在1日龄和12日龄工蜂触角的表达量最高,显著高于其他日龄(P0.05);Amel-CSP6在28日龄工蜂触角中的表达水平最低,显著低于其他日龄(P0.05)。【结论】Amel-CSP1、Amel-CSP2、Amel-CSP6在意大利蜜蜂成年工蜂中的表达具有明显的时空特异性,这对进一步探测意大利蜜蜂CSPs家族的生理功能提供了研究方向和理论基础,具有一定的生物学意义。     

褪黑素UPLC-MS/MS检测方法优化及其对干旱和盐胁迫下葡萄幼苗褪黑素含量的分析

褪黑素是一种吲哚类激素,对植物的生理活动和抗逆性起到显著的调节作用。该研究建立了褪黑素超高效液相色谱-串联质谱(UPLC-MS/MS)检测方法,并分别对干旱胁迫和盐胁迫条件下‘赤霞珠’葡萄幼苗根系和叶片中褪黑素含量的变化进行分析,以探讨葡萄中褪黑素的生理功能及其响应逆境胁迫的调控机制。结果显示:(1)褪黑素UPLC-MS/MS检测方法的优化条件为:采用超声波破碎法提取葡萄组织中的褪黑素;色谱条件为:色谱柱为Agilent Eclipse XDB-C18(1.8μm,3.0×50mm),流动相A为0.1%(v/v)的甲酸水溶液,流动相B为纯甲醇,梯度洗脱,柱温42℃,进样量1μL,流速0.2mL/min;质谱条件为:电喷雾正离子模式(ESI+)电离,多反应监测模式(MRM)检测,检测离子对为m/z 233→174。该方法测量结果的相对标准偏差(RSD)低于7%,最低检测限(LOD)和最低定量限(LOQ)分别为0.04ng/mL和0.12ng/mL。(2)干旱胁迫和盐胁迫下葡萄幼苗根系和叶片中褪黑素含量较对照组均显著增加,且胁迫程度越强增幅越大;用120mmol/L的NaCl溶液处理幼苗以后,幼苗根系和叶片中褪黑素含量分别达到627.25和3 220.42pg/g,大约都是相应对照组幼苗根系和叶片中褪黑素含量的7倍;10%PEG6000处理植株后其根系和叶片中褪黑素含量也远远高于对照组。研究表明,超高效液相色谱串联质谱法可作为一种准确、高效、简便易操作且具有较高的灵敏度和精确度的植物内源褪黑素含量检测方法;葡萄中褪黑素的合成是其对逆境胁迫的一种应激响应,暗示着褪黑素在缓解逆境胁迫方面具有重要作用。     

中华蜜蜂细胞色素CYP9E2基因克隆及其表达分析

【目的】克隆中华蜜蜂Apis cerana cerana细胞色素CYP9E2基因的完整编码区序列,分析CYP9E2基因在工蜂体内的表达特征,为研究该基因的生物学功能提供理论基础。【方法】以解剖获得的中华蜜蜂采集蜂中肠组织为材料,提取总RNA。利用RT-PCR技术克隆中华蜜蜂CYP9E2基因的编码区。采用多种生物信息学软件分析该基因的核苷酸和氨基酸序列,利用荧光定量PCR技术(quantitative real-time PCR)分析其在中华蜜蜂工蜂成虫期不同阶段(初生蜂、哺育蜂、守卫蜂以及采集蜂)头部和中肠组织中的相对表达量及在饲喂氟氯苯菊酯后工蜂中肠组织中的表达变化。【结果】克隆获得中华蜜蜂CYP9E2基因(命名为Ac CYP9E2)mRNA序列,长度为1 600 bp(Gen Bank登录号:KX394629),编码区长1 494 bp,编码497个氨基酸,其蛋白质分子量为57.026k D,等电点为8.32。系统发育树显示,中华蜜蜂Ac CYP9E2与西方蜜蜂Apis mellifera、小蜜蜂Apis florea CYP9E2基因聚成一支。对中华蜜蜂工蜂成虫期不同阶段头部和中肠组织Ac CYP9E2相对表达量测定发现,该基因在中华蜜蜂工蜂成虫期不同阶段的表达量存在一定差异,其中,采集蜂头部和中肠组织中Ac CYP9E2相对表达量均显著高于初生蜂、哺育蜂以及守卫蜂(P0.05),而且4个阶段工蜂中肠组织中的Ac CYP9E2相对表达量均显著高于其头部(P0.05)。饲喂氟氯苯菊酯后,工蜂中肠组织中Ac CYP9E2的相对表达量显著高于对照组(P0.05)。【结论】推测Ac CYP9E2可能参与了中华蜜蜂机体外源物质的代谢与解毒过程。     

植物中褪黑素的研究进展

植物褪黑素自20世纪90年代被发现以来,初期的研究多为测定方法,而后褪黑素生理功能的研究成为热点。植物中褪黑素含量的测定方法有放射免疫测定(RIA)、高效液相色谱(HPLC)、气相色谱(GC)、高效液相色谱-质谱(HPLC-MS)和气相色谱-质谱(GC-MS)等,而高效液相色谱与荧光检测器(HPLC-FD)和电化学检测器(HPLC-EC)联用是植物中褪黑素定量研究的较常用方法。褪黑素含量因植物种类、器官不同而异,并以繁殖器官种子和花中较高。褪黑素在植物中具有调节光周期、促进植物种子萌发及生根、提高植物抵御外界环境压力如重金属、紫外辐射、温度变化等功能,而这些生理功能的作用机制、合成位点等尚待进一步研究。该文对国内外近年来有关褪黑素在植物中的检测方法、生物合成途径及生理功能等几个方面的研究进展进行综述,并提出今后的研究方向。     

褪黑素预处理对高温下猕猴桃幼苗抗氧化能力的影响

为了探明外源褪黑素对高温胁迫下猕猴桃幼苗耐热性的影响,以盆栽‘秦美’猕猴桃幼苗为材料,进行根灌褪黑素溶液和45℃高温胁迫处理,并测定相关抗逆生理指标。结果表明：(1)与高温对照相比,褪黑素预处理显著降低了猕猴桃幼苗叶片相对电导率和丙二醛含量,提高了脯氨酸含量以及过氧化氢酶和过氧化物酶活性,且褪黑素溶液浓度在100~200 μmol·L^-1时效果较好。(2)褪黑素预处理显著增加了叶片中总酚、总黄酮和总黄烷醇含量,且幼苗的抗氧化能力(ABTS法、FRAP法和DPPH法)在胁迫过程中显著高于高温对照。研究认为,外源褪黑素可以通过提高植株体内抗氧化酶活性,非酶抗氧化物质如酚类物质和类黄酮物质含量以及渗透调节物质含量来增强植物的抗氧化能力,从而有效缓解高温对于猕猴桃幼苗的伤害,增强猕猴桃幼苗的耐热性。     

褪黑素调节烟草丁香假单胞菌抗性的功能研究

为分析褪黑素(N-乙酰-5-甲氧基色胺)在植物先天免疫中的功能及调控机理,研究以病原菌丁香假单胞杆菌(Pseudomonas syringae pv.tomato DC3000,Pst DC3000)—烟草互作系统为模型,检测了病原菌侵染对烟草褪黑素相关基因表达的影响,并探讨了褪黑素对植物叶片病原菌生长以及气孔开度和活性氧自由基(reactive oxygen species,ROS)含量的影响以及调控机理。结果表明:(1)Pst DC3000处理提高了烟草褪黑素合成(NtSNAT1)和受体(NtPMTR1)基因表达,且外源褪黑素处理降低了叶片中的病原菌含量。(2)与野生型植物相比,过表达大豆GmSNAT1基因显著提高了转基因烟草中内源褪黑素含量和NtPMTR1的表达,且转基因烟草叶片中的Pst DC3000菌落数显著下降。(3)外源褪黑素和细菌鞭毛蛋白多肽flg22处理诱导了野生型和转基因烟草保卫细胞中ROS产生和气孔关闭,且转基因植物对褪黑素和flg22诱导的气孔关闭和ROS产生比野生型烟草更加敏感。综上所述,研究表明褪黑素可能通过受体NtPMTR1介导的信号途径促进保卫细胞ROS产生,诱导气孔关闭,从而降低病原菌Pst DC3000的入侵。     

影响中华蜜蜂工蜂王浆腺活性的因素

王浆腺是一对位于工蜂头部的泡状腺体,是分泌王浆的主要腺体。青年工蜂的王浆腺在春夏肥大,分泌王浆,饲喂幼虫及蜂王。采集蜂的王浆腺呈可逆的萎缩状态(Free,1961)。越冬工蜂的王浆腺虽肥大,但无泌浆活性(Brouwers,1983)。本试验为了寻找诱发工蜂王浆腺活性的主要因素,为王浆生产提供理论依据,故研究了工蜂王浆腺活性与幼虫、蜂王、花粉、温度之间的关系。     

抑制大鼠褪黑素的合成对神经细丝过度磷酸化的影响

目的探讨抑制褪黑素的生物合成对大鼠海马神经细丝过度磷酸化的影响及其可能机制.方法侧脑室注射氟哌啶醇并腹腔注射加强,HPLC检测血清中褪黑素水平;利用免疫组化检测大鼠海马区域神经细丝磷酸化情况;微量测定法测定超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性和脂质过氧化产物丙二醛的含量.结果①模型组大鼠血清中褪黑素的含量明显下降.②海马区域神经细丝发生聚集和异常过度磷酸化,补充不同剂量的褪黑素的治疗组较模型组的磷酸化程度有所改善.③模型组SOD活性降低,丙二醛(MDA)含量明显升高.结论褪黑素水平的降低引起AD-样神经细丝异常过度磷酸化,外源性补充褪黑素可以一定程度上减轻神经细丝的异常过度磷酸化.     

外源褪黑素对干旱胁迫下黑麦草和苜蓿抗氧化能力及养分吸收的影响

以黑麦草和苜蓿为对象,分别叶面喷施和根施100 μmol·L^-1的褪黑素溶液,在干旱胁迫下测定了生物量、丙二醛(MDA)含量、相对电导率、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)和过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性、养分含量(有机碳C、全氮N、全磷P)等指标,研究外源褪黑素对干旱胁迫下植物抗氧化能力及养分吸收的影响。结果表明: 干旱胁迫下,黑麦草和苜蓿的地上、地下生物量显著降低,外施褪黑素能够有效缓解干旱胁迫对黑麦草和苜蓿生长的抑制作用,叶面喷施和根施褪黑素使干旱胁迫下黑麦草的生物量分别增加14.5%和29.6%,苜蓿的生物量分别增加36.6%和49.1%。干旱胁迫下,黑麦草的SOD、POD活性和苜蓿的SOD活性显著降低,外施褪黑素显著提高黑麦草和苜蓿的SOD、POD、CAT活性,减少叶片中MDA的积累,使叶片相对电导率显著下降,抗氧化能力显著提高。干旱和外施褪黑素对黑麦草和苜蓿有机碳含量无显著影响。干旱胁迫下,黑麦草叶片和根中的N、P含量以及苜蓿根中的N含量降低,外施褪黑素提高黑麦草和苜蓿根和叶片中的N、P含量,这表明褪黑素对干旱胁迫下黑麦草和苜蓿的养分吸收有一定的调节作用。施用褪黑素不仅能改善植物的抗氧化能力,还能调节养分吸收以增强植物对干旱胁迫的适应性,而且叶面喷施褪黑素效果好于根施。     

Effect of melatonin on mitosis of the mouse ascites hepatoma Gelstein 22A

The action of melatonin on mitosis of the mouse ascites Gelstein 22A hepatoma has been studied in C3HA male mice with 7-day ascites. The cells of ascites hepatoma have shown the metaphase block after intraperitoneal injection of melatonin. It was found that 3 hours after administration melationin at a concentration of 200 and 100 micrograms per 1 g body weight induces an increase in the mitotic index and accumulation of mitoses at the stage of metaphase.     

The impact of long-term past exposure to elemental mercury on antioxidative capacity and lipid peroxidation in mercury miners

Limited information is available on the effects of chronic mercury exposure in relation to the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is known from in vitro and in vivo studies that Hg can promote lipid peroxidation through promotion of free radical generation, and interaction with antioxidative enzymes and reduction of bioavailable selenium. The objective of the study was to test the hypothesis that long-term past occupational exposure to elemental Hg (Hg⁰) can modify antioxidative capacity and promote lipid peroxidation in miners.

The study population comprised 54 mercury miners and 58 workers as the control group. The miners were examined in the post-exposure period. We evaluated their previous exposure to Hg⁰, the putative appearance of certain nonspecific symptoms and signs of micromercurialism, as well as the main behavioural and biological risk factors for CVD, and determined: 1) Hg and Se levels in blood and urine, 2) antioxidative enzymes, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (CuZn-SOD), catalase (CAT), and selenoenzyme glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity in erythrocytes as indirect indices of free radical activity, 3) pineal hormone melationin (MEL) in blood and urine, and 4) lipid hydroperoxides (LOOHs) and malondialdehyde (MDA) as lipid peroxidation products.

The mercury miners were intermittently exposed to Hg⁰ for periods of 7 to 31 years. The total number of exposure periods varied from 13 to 119. The cumulative U-Hg peak level varied from 794-11,365 μg/L. The current blood and urine Hg concentrations were practically on the same level in miners and controls. Miners showed some neurotoxic and nephrotoxic sequels of micromercurialism. No significant differences in behavioural and biological risk factors for CVD were found between miners and controls. A weak correlation (r = 0.36, p < 0.01) between systolic blood pressure and average past exposure U-Hg level was found. The mean P-Se in miners (71.4 μg/L) was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than in the controls (77.3 μg/L), while the mean U-Se tended to be higher (p < 0.05) in miners (16.5 μg/g creatinine) than in the controls (14.0 μg/g creatinine). Among antioxidative enzyme activities, only CAT in erythrocytes was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in miners (3.14 MU/g Hb) than in the controls (2.65 MU/g Hb). The mean concentration of B-MEL in miners (44.3 ng/L) was significantly higher (p < 0.01) than in the controls (14.9 ng/L). The mean value of U-MEL sulphate (31.8 μg/L) in miners was significantly lower (p < 0.01) than in the control group (46.9 μg/L). Among the observed lipid peroxidative products, the mean concentration of U-MDA was statistically higher (p < 0.01) in miners (0.21 μmol/mmol creatinine) than in the controls (0.17 μmol/mmol creatinine).

In the group of miners with high mercury accumulation and the presence of some nonspecific symptoms and signs of micromercurialism, the results of our study partly support the assumption that long-term occupational exposure to Hg⁰ enhances the formation of free radicals even several years after termination of occupational exposure. Therefore, long-term occupational exposure to Hg⁰ could be one of the risk factors for increased lipid peroxidation and increased mortality due to ischaemic heart disease (ICH) found among the mercury miners of the Idrija Mine.     

A theory of natural selection incorporating interaction among individuals. I. The modeling process

Short- and long-term consequences of natural selection, operating in accordance with the classical (non-interaction) model, are reviewed. This review provides the basis for comparisons of the optimum results of the classical model with the results from interaction models. Then as a first step, the simplest interaction modeling system (Model I) is developed subject to the following conditions: (i) The natural selection model is constructed so that it is compatible with the one that already exists for artificial selection theory. This condition ensures that an overall theory is formulated which embraces both natural and artificial selection with a single modeling system and a common notation. (ii) The interaction theory is developed so that it is an extension of the classical theory. This condition ensures that the generalized theory includes the classical results as a special case when interaction is absent.The short- and long-term consequences of selection operating with Model I are determined to be less than optimal when compared with the classical results. Future papers in this series will consider how the interaction model can be modified in order to produce results which tend toward optimality.     

Inclusive fitness analysis on mathematical groups

Recent work on the evolution of behaviour is set in a structured population, providing a systematic way to describe gene flow and behavioural interactions. To obtain analytical results one needs a structure with considerable regularity. Our results apply to such "homogeneous" structures (e.g., lattices, cycles, and island models). This regularity has been formally described by a "node-transitivity" condition but in mathematics, such internal symmetry is powerfully described by the theory of mathematical groups. Here, this theory provides elegant direct arguments for a more general version of a number of existing results. Our main result is that in large "group-structured" populations, primary fitness effects on others play no role in the evolution of the behaviour. The competitive effects of such a trait cancel the primary effects, and the inclusive fitness effect is given by the direct effect of the actor on its own fitness. This result is conditional on a number of assumptions such as (1) whether generations overlap, (2) whether offspring dispersal is symmetric, (3) whether the trait affects fecundity or survival, and (4) whether the underlying group is abelian. We formulate a number of results of this type in finite and infinite populations for both Moran and Wright-Fisher demographies.     

A coalescent model of recombination hotspots

Recent experimental findings suggest that the assumption of a homogeneous recombination rate along the human genome is too naive. These findings point to block-structured recombination rates; certain regions (called hotspots) are more prone than other regions to recombination. In this report a coalescent model incorporating hotspot or block-structured recombination is developed and investigated analytically as well as by simulation. Our main results can be summarized as follows: (1) The expected number of recombination events is much lower in a model with pure hotspot recombination than in a model with pure homogeneous recombination, (2) hotspots give rise to large variation in recombination rates along the genome as well as in the number of historical recombination events, and (3) the size of a (nonrecombining) block in the hotspot model is likely to be overestimated grossly when estimated from SNP data. The results are discussed with reference to the current debate about block-structured recombination and, in addition, the results are compared to genome-wide variation in recombination rates. A number of new analytical results about the model are derived.     

A 3-D Propagation Model for Emerging Land Mobile Radio Cellular Environments

A tunable stochastic geometry based Three-Dimensional (3-D) scattering model for emerging land mobile radio cellular systems is proposed. Uniformly distributed scattering objects are assumed around the Mobile Station (MS) bounded within an ellipsoidal shaped Scattering Region (SR) hollowed with an elliptically-cylindric scattering free region in immediate vicinity of MS. To ensure the degree of expected accuracy, the proposed model is designed to be tunable (as required) with nine degrees of freedom, unlike its counterparts in the existing literature. The outer and inner boundaries of SR are designed as independently scalable along all the axes and rotatable in horizontal plane around their origin centered at MS. The elevated Base Station (BS) is considered outside the SR at a certain adjustable distance and height w.r.t. position of MS. Closed-form analytical expressions for joint and marginal Probability Density Functions (PDFs) of Angle-of-Arrival (AoA) and Time-of-Arrival (ToA) are derived for both up- and down-links. The obtained analytical results for angular and temporal statistics of the channel are presented along with a thorough analysis. The impact of various physical model parameters on angular and temporal characteristics of the channel is presented, which reveals the comprehensive insight on the proposed results. To evaluate the robustness of the proposed analytical model, a comparison with experimental datasets and simulation results is also presented. The obtained analytical results for PDF of AoA observed at BS are seen to fit a vast range of empirical datasets in the literature taken for various outdoor propagation environments. In order to establish the validity of the obtained analytical results for spatial and temporal characteristics of the channel, a comparison of the proposed analytical results with the simulation results is shown, which illustrates a good fit for 10⁷ scattering points. Moreover, the proposed model is shown to degenerate to various notable geometric models in the literature by an appropriate choice of a few parameters.     

Water-hydroxide exchange reactions at the catalytic site of heme-copper oxidases

Membrane-bound heme-copper oxidases catalyze the reduction of O(2) to water. Part of the free energy associated with this process is used to pump protons across the membrane. The O(2) reduction reaction results in formation of high-pK(a) protonatable groups at the catalytic site. The free energy associated with protonation of these groups is used for proton pumping. One of these protonatable groups is OH(-), coordinated to the heme and Cu(B) at the catalytic site. Here we present results from EPR experiments on the Rhodobacter sphaeroides cytochrome c oxidase, which show that at high pH (9) approximately 50% of oxidized heme a(3) is hydroxide-ligated, while at low pH (6.5), no hydroxide is bound to heme a(3). The kinetics of hydroxide binding to heme a(3) were investigated after dissociation of CO from heme a(3) in the enzyme in which the heme a(3)-Cu(B) center was reduced while the remaining redox sites were oxidized. The dissociation of CO results in a decrease of the midpoint potential of heme a(3), which results in electron transfer (tau approximately equal 3 micros) from heme a(3) to heme a in approximately 100% of the enzyme population. At pH >7.5, the electron transfer is followed by proton release from a H(2)O molecule to the bulk solution (tau approximately equal 2 ms at pH 9). This reaction is also associated with absorbance changes of heme a(3), which on the basis of the results from the EPR experiments are attributed to formation of hydroxide-ligated heme a(3). The OH(-) bound to heme a(3) under equilibrium conditions at high pH is also formed transiently after O(2) reduction at low pH. It is proposed that the free energy associated with electron transfer to the binuclear center and protonation of this OH(-) upon reduction of the recently oxidized enzyme provides the driving force for the pumping of one proton.     

Evolution of pathogens towards low R0 in heterogeneous populations

Maximization of the basic reproduction ratio or R(0) is widely believed to drive the emergence of novel pathogens. The presence of exploitable heterogeneities in a population, such as high variance in the number of potentially infectious contacts, increases R(0) and thus pathogens that can exploit heterogeneities in the contact structure have an advantage over those that do not. However, exploitation of heterogeneities results in a more rapid depletion of the potentially susceptible neighbourhood for an infected host. Here a simple model of pathogen evolution in a heterogeneous environment is developed and placed in the context of HIV transmission. In this model, it is shown that pathogens may evolve towards lower R(0), even if this results in pathogen extinction. For sufficiently high transmissibility, two locally stable strategies exist for an evolving pathogen, one that exploits heterogeneities and results in higher R(0), and one that does not, and results in lower R(0). While the low R(0) strategy is never evolutionarily stable, invading strains with higher R(0) will also converge to the low R(0) strategy if not sufficiently different from the resident strain. Heterogenous transmission is increasingly recognized as fundamental to epidemiological dynamics and the evolution of pathogens; here, it is shown that the ability to exploit heterogeneity is a strategy that can itself evolve.     

The 'subsequent artificial neural network' (SANN) approach might bring more classificatory power to ANN-based DNA microarray analyses

MOTIVATION: Human decisions often proceed in two steps. Initially those most preferred are chosen followed by a subsequent choice of these preferences. Applying one artificial neural network (ANN), a classification is limited to the preselection process. The final categorization is only possible by a subsequent ANN that distinguishes the pre-chosen classes. Existing strategies using coupled ANNs are discussed and a new approach particularly suited for multiclass classification problems is introduced ('Subsequent ANN', SANN). RESULTS: Evaluating a simulated data base comprising 3 classes, classification results of SANN were obviously superior to those achieved by ANN. To evaluate a real-world data base the microarray benchmark GCM (14 classes) was chosen. The ANN results reached 72%, comparable to previous results. Using SANN, up to 81% of the tumors were correctly classified. AVAILABILITY: Programs used in this work and numerical results are available upon request.     

Solvent cage effects: the influence of radical mass and volume on the recombination dynamics of radical cage pairs generated by photolysis of [CpCH2CH2N(CH3)C(O)(CH2)nCH3Mo(CO)3]2 (n = 3, 8, 13, 18) (Cp = eta 5-C5H4) complexes

The photochemistry of the [(CpR)Mo(CO)(3)](2) molecules, where CpR = eta(5)-C(5)H(4)(CH(2))(2)C(O)NCH(3)(CH(2))(n)CH(3) (n = 3, 8, 13, and 18), was examined using femtosecond pump-probe transient absorption spectroscopy. The goal of this study was to investigate the importance of radical size and mass on the dynamics and efficiency of geminate radical-radical recombination. The femtosecond results demonstrated the lack of any size/mass dependence of the recombination efficiency. This finding contrasts with results from a prior study that did find a size/mass dependence using a steady-state photochemical technique. To explain these conflicting results, it is proposed that the femtosecond pump-probe results are a measurement of the efficiency of primary geminate recombination whereas the steady-state method results are a measurement of the sum of primary and secondary geminate recombination efficiencies. The size/mass dependence is evident in the latter because secondary geminate recombination is a slower diffusive recombination process and therefore depends on the steric properties of the radicals. Although the existence of primary and secondary recombination channels is often taken for granted, experimental differentiation of primary and secondary caging has proven to be difficult because it is not possible for a single experimental technique to span the entire timescale for recombination of a radical cage pair and adequately resolve these recombination pathways.