The invasion history,distribution and colour pattern forms of the harlequin ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis (Pall.) (Coleoptera,Coccinellidae) in Slovakia,Central Europe

The harlequin ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) has invaded and established in Slovakia. Following unintentional introduction in 2008, the spread of the alien coccinellid was very fast. By the end of 2009, it was recorded across the whole country, and by the end of 2012 it was widely distributed and common in various habitats, particularly gardens, orchards and urban areas, where it was most frequent on trees. The rate of eastward spread was approximately 200 km year^-1, similar to the overall rate of spread in Europe. Between 2008 and 2012, the coccinellid was recorded in a total of 153 localities, in altitudes ranging from 98 to 1,250 m. Most records of this species were made in lowlands, hilly areas and valleys separating mountain ridges. However, it was only rarely documented in areas above 700 m a.s.l. The non-melanic colour form (f. succinea) was dominant along a longitudinal transect including eight urban areas across Slovakia, with the frequency of melanic forms (f. spectabilis and f. conspicua together) between 6.3 and 19.2% and a median equal to 10.5%. The invasion history and distribution of H. axyridis in Slovakia are discussed with regard to the time sequence of records, rate of spread, altitudinal distribution, anthropogenic dispersal, effective recording, proportion of melanic forms and other relevant aspects associated with the spread of this successful invader.     

九顶山东坡植被区系垂直演替特征研究

四川九顶山东坡地形复杂,降水丰沛,孕育了丰富植物物种．在野外样带调查的基础上,分析了九顶山种子植物区系组成和各分布类型在海拔梯度上的分布规律．九顶山种子植物区系组成中,北温带属占优势(27．8％),其次是泛热带属(14．2％)和东亚属(13．0％)．北温带属的垂直分布与海拔升高为正相关关系,而其他的分布类型一般局限在一定海拔范围内,并不连续．     

No obvious genetic erosion,but evident relict status at the westernmost range edge of the Pontic‐Pannonian steppe plant Linum flavum L. (Linaceae) in Central Europe

We investigate patterns of genetic variation along an east–west transect of Central European populations of Linum flavum and interpret the Quaternary history of its peripheral populations, especially those at the westernmost isolated range edge, discussing their migrations and possible relict status. We defined our peripheral transect across three study regions from Central Hungary, eastern Austria to southwestern Germany. Using AFLP fingerprinting and cpDNA sequence variation (rpL16 intron, atpI‐H), we analyzed 267 and 95 individuals, respectively, representing each study region by four populations. Hierarchical AMOVA (AFLPs) indicated significant variation among study regions (12% of total variance) and moderate differentiation between populations (10%). Population differentiation was high at the westernmost range edge (11.5%, Germany), but also in the east (13.4%, Hungary), compared to the Austrian study region (8.6%). Correspondingly, AFLP diversity was highest in the center of the study transect in eastern Austria. CpDNA haplotypes support a pattern of regional structuring with the strongest separation of the westernmost range edge, and some haplotype sharing among Austrian and Hungarian individuals. Equilibrating nucleotide versus haplotype diversity patterns, the highly diverse populations at the Pannonian range edge (Austria) indicate long‐term persistence, while Central Pannonian populations are obviously effected by recent bottlenecks. Intermediate nucleotide, but high haplotype diversity within the westernmost exclave (Swabian Alb), is indicative of a founder bottleneck during its pre‐LGM or early postglacial migration history, followed by sufficient time to accumulate cpDNA variation. The not obviously reduced genetic diversity and distinctiveness of L. flavum at the westernmost range edge suggest a long‐term persistence (relict status) of populations in this region, where the species has survived probably even the Würm glaciation in extra‐Mediterranean refugia. This genetic relict variation represents an important part of the overall genetic diversity found in the western periphery of this steppe plant and highlights the high conservation priority of respective gene pools.     

Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in Drosophilid species (Diptera: Drosophilidae) along altitudinal gradient from Central Himalayan region of India

Central Himalayan region of India encompasses varied ecological habitats ranging from near tropics to the mid-elevation forests dominated by cool-temperate taxa. In past, we have reported several new records and novel species from Uttarakhand state of India. Here, we assessed genetic variations in three mitochondrial genes, namely, 16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COI and COII) in 26 drosophilid species collected along altitudinal transect from 550 to 2700 m above mean sea level. In the present study, overall 543 sequences were generated, 82 for 16S rRNA, 238 for COI, 223 for COII with 21, 47 and 45 mitochondrial haplotypes for 16S rRNA, COI and COII genes, respectively. Almost all species were represented by 2–3 unique mitochondrial haplotypes, depicting a significant impact of environmental heterogeneity along altitudinal gradient on genetic diversity. Also for the first time, molecular data of some rare species like Drosophila mukteshwarensis, Liodrosophila nitida, Lordiphosa parantillaria, Lordiphosa ayarpathaensis, Scaptomyza himalayana, Scaptomyza tistai, Zaprionus grandis and Stegana minuta are provided to public domains through this study.     

Invasion spread of Operophtera brumata in northeastern United States and hybridization with O. bruceata

We used five methods to estimate the rate of spread of the winter moth, Operophtera brumata L., a European Lepidoptera, invading the northeastern USA and occasionally hybridizing with the closely related O. bruceata. These two species utilize the same sex attractant and pheromone traps capture both species. We estimated spread based on the ratio of the two species captured in pheromone-baited traps. Population boundaries were derived from captures in a grid of traps and spread was estimated as 6.6 km/year based on displacement of population boundaries between 2005 and 2008. Radial spread rate was also estimated as 6.9 km/year from the displacement of boundaries using logistic regression of trap captures along a single east–west transect of traps deployed yearly from 2007 to 2011. We also estimated the rate of spread from the expansion of defoliation mapped during aerial surveys. Based on the displacement of defoliation boundaries from 2005 to 2008, spread rate was estimated as 6.0 km/year. Based on the year of first defoliation, spread was estimated as 4.8 km/year and regression of the square-root of the cumulative area/π versus time yielded an estimate of 4.7 km/year. All five estimates were similar, and differences reflect the nuances of the data from which they were derived. We discuss here how the occasional hybridization with O. bruceata may be either retarding or enhancing O. brumata spread.     

The oldest monitoring site of the Alps revisited: accelerated increase in plant species richness on Piz Linard summit since 1835

Background: High-altitude ecosystems in the Alps have experienced severe environmental changes over the past decades, such as strong warming and increasing numbers of visitors and grazers. Few studies have followed the effects of such changes on the alpine flora over a period longer than a few decades. The summit of Piz Linard (3410 m, south-eastern Switzerland) is the oldest site in the Alps whose flora has been recorded, on average every 20 years since the Little Ice Age (1835).

Aims: We re-surveyed the summit flora of Piz Linard to trace its floristic changes and identify their patterns and possible drivers.

Methods: We mapped each species' highest location, distribution and abundance in the uppermost 30 m of the Piz Linard summit in 2011, and compared species composition and species’ altitudinal distribution over time.

Results: Species richness increased at an accelerated rate since 1992 and rose from 12 to 16 species since the previous record in 2003. Most already present species increased in abundance and colonised new areas of the summit, while new arrivals mainly established at sites with already high species richness. Species appeared after 1992 differed from species already present previously by having had lower maximum altitudes elsewhere in south-eastern Switzerland.

Conclusions: Temporal and spatial patterns of colonisations and former altitudinal ranges of species all point to climate warming as the principal driver of floristic change on Piz Linard.     

Clinal differentiation during invasion: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Senecio inaequidens</Emphasis> (Asteraceae) along altitudinal gradients in Europe

The dynamics of plant population differentiation may be integral in predicting aspects of introduced species invasion. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that European populations of Senecio inaequidens (Asteraceae), an invasive species with South African origins, differentiated during migration from two independent introduction sites into divergent altitudinal and climatic zones. We carried out 2 years of common garden experiments with eight populations sampled from Belgian and ten populations from French altitudinal transects. The Belgian transect followed a temperature and precipitation gradient. A temperature and summer drought gradient characterized the French transect. We evaluated differentiation and clinal variation in plants germinated from field-collected seed using the following traits: days to germination, days to flowering, height at maturity, final plant height and aboveground biomass. Results showed that S. inaequidens populations differentiated in growth traits during invasion. During the 1st year of sampling, the results indicated clinal variation for growth traits along both the Belgium and French altitudinal transects. Data from the 2nd year of study demonstrated that with increasing altitude, a reduction in three growth traits, including plant height at maturity, final plant height and aboveground biomass, was detected along the French transect, but no longer along the Belgian one. Phenological traits did not exhibit a clear clinal variation along altitudinal transects. The possible evolutionary causes for the observed differentiation are discussed. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Leaf epidermal characteristics of Asiatic Buddleja L. under scanning electron microscope: Insights into chromosomal and taxonomic significance

The leaf epidermis of all 23 species from Asian Buddleja was investigated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Characteristics of trichome type, stomatal shape, cuticular membrane on adaxial and abaxial epidermis, inner margin of outer stomatal ledge and ornamentation of outer stomatal ledge are presented in this study. Among the Buddleja species, some distinct epidermal patterns were observed. These can be used to characterize and identify different sections among the Asian Buddleja species, viz. Alternifoliae, Curviflorae and Rectiflorae. In general, stomatal length of Buddleja increases with ploidy level. This character can be used to distinguish diploids from polyploids without preparation of caryograms. Based on this correlation Buddleja microstachya, B. subcapitata and B. bhutanica are characterized to be diploids, as concluded from their stomatal dimensions. Leaf epidermis characters can also be used to differentiate species pairs that are easily confused with each other, viz., B. asiatica and B. bhutanica, B. albiflora and B. nivea, B. candida and B. fallowiana, B. delavayi and B. forrestii, B. japonica and B. lindleyana, B. officinalis and B. paniculata.     

Rapid continental spread of a salt-tolerant plant along the European road network

The spread of alien species with the expansion of road networks and increasing traffic is a well-known phenomenon globally. Besides their corridor effects, road maintenance practices, such as the use of de-icing salts during winter facilitate the spread of halophyte (salt tolerant) species along roads. A good example is Plantago coronopus, a mainly coastal halophyte which has started spreading inland from the Atlantic and Mediterranean coastal habitats, recently reaching even Central European countries (e.g. Hungary). Here we studied the spread of this halophyte and tried to identify factors explaining its successful dispersion along roads, while also comparing native and non-native roadside occurrences with regard to altitude of the localities, size of roadside populations and frequency of roadside occurrences. We completed a comprehensive literature review and collected more than 200 reports of occurrence from roadsides spanning a total of 38 years. During systematic sampling the frequency of the species along roads was significantly higher in the Mediterranean (native area), than along Hungarian (non-native area) roads, however the average number of individuals at the sampling localities were very similar, and no significant difference could be detected. Using a germination experiment, we demonstrate that although the species is able to germinate even at high salt concentrations, salt is not required for germination. Indeed salt significantly decreases germination probability of the seeds. The successful spread of the species could most likely be explained by its remarkably high seed production, or some special characteristics (e.g. seed dimorphism) and its ability to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions. Considering the recent and rapid eastward spread of P. coronopus, occurrences in other countries where it has not been reported yet can be predicted in coming years.

     

Studies of Linkage in Populations. IX. the Effect of Altitude on X-Chromosomal Arrangement Combinations in DROSOPHILA ROBUSTA

Data are presented concerning the gene arrangements in both arms of the X-chromosome of Drosophila robusta in eight altitudinal transects. The major change appears to be the increase of gene arrangement XL-1 (and decrease in XL, sometimes also XL-2) with increasing altitude. In each transect only one combination of XL-1 with a right arm arrangement seems primarily responsible for the increases with altitudinal change, and only one combination of XL for the decreases. In four of the transects the increasing combination appears to be XL-1.XR, XL-1.XR-2 in the other four. A substantial decrease with elevation in XL-2.XR-2 occurs only in the four areas where XL-1.XR exhibits the major increase. These results indicate that interactions between arrangements play a significant role in the adaptation of this species to altitude. The interactions appear related to the X-chromosomal linkage equilibriums in these regions. The data also suggest that the species employs its inversions in different methods of adaptation in the Appalachian Mountains from those it uses in other parts of the range.     

Brain size variation along altitudinal gradients in the Asiatic Toad (Bufo gargarizans)

Size changes in brain and brain regions along altitudinal gradients provide insight into the trade‐off between energetic expenditure and cognitive capacity. We investigated the brain size variations of the Asiatic Toad (Bufo gargarizans) across altitudes from 700 m to 3,200 m. A total of 325 individuals from 11 sites and two transects were sampled. To reduce confounding factors, all sampling sites within each transect were within a maximum distance of 85 km and an altitudinal difference close to 2,000 m. Brains were dissected, and five regions were both measured directly and with 3D CT scan. There is a significant negative correlation between the relative whole‐brain volume (to snout‐vent length) and altitude. Furthermore, the relative volumes (to whole‐brain volume) of optic tectum and cerebellum also decrease along the altitudinal gradients, while the telencephalon increases its relative volume along the gradients. Therefore, our results are mostly consistent with the expensive brain hypothesis and the functional constraint hypothesis. We suggest that most current hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and data supporting one hypothesis are often partially consistent with others. More studies on mechanisms are needed to explain the brain size evolution in natural populations.     

Effect of altitude on the genetic structure of an Alpine grass, Poa hiemata

Background and Aims

The persistence of plants inhabiting restricted alpine areas under climate change will depend upon many factors including levels of genetic variation in adaptive traits, population structure, and breeding system.

Methods

Using microsatellite markers, the genetic structure of populations of a relatively common alpine grass, Poa hiemata, is examined across three altitudinal gradients within the restricted Australian alpine zone where this species has previously been shown to exhibit local adaptation across a narrow altitudinal gradient.

Key Results

Genetic variation across six microsatellite markers revealed genetic structuring along altitudinal transects, and a reduction in genetic variation at high and low altitude extremes relative to sites central within transects. There was less genetic variation among transect sites compared with altitudinal gradients within transects, even though distances among transects were relatively larger. Central sites within transects were less differentiated than those at extremes.

Conclusions

These patterns suggest higher rates of gene flow among sites at similar altitudes than along transects, a process that could assist altitudinal adaptation. Patterns of spatial autocorrelation and isolation by distance changed with altitude and may reflect altered patterns of dispersal via pollen and/or seed. There was evidence for selfing and clonality in neighbouring plants. Levels of gene flow along transects were insufficient to prevent adaptive changes in morphological traits, given previously measured levels of selection.Key words: Poa hiemata, genetic structure, altitudinal gradient, microsatellite, gene flow, climate change     

Altitudinal zonation of Andean cryptogam communities

To test whether cryptogamic plant communities in tropical Andean rain forests are distributed in floristically discrete communities corresponding to altitudinal belts, I subjected the elevational distribution of pteridophytes along two elevational gradients in Bolivia, and of bryophytes and lichens along two transects in Peru and Colombia (data from Gradstein & Frahm, 1987 ; Wolf, 1993 ) to an analysis of deviance. All well‐defined elevational boundaries in floristic composition were related to marked ecological changes: the transition from the steep mountains to the hilly lowland zone coupled with a change in geological substrate at 400 m along the Bolivian Carrasco transect, a strong humidity gradient at 1000 m at the Bolivian Masicurí transect and at 1250–1980 m along the Colombian transect, and the transition from mixed cloud forests to forests dominated by Polylepis or Podocarpus at 3400–3600 m in Carrasco, at 1650–1800 m in Masicurí, and at 3670 m in Colombia. Consequently, floristic elevational belts appear to be well‐defined at strong environmental boundaries and in fairly species‐poor forest communities where the presence or absence of one or a few tree species influences the whole ecosystem while they are ill‐defined in species‐rich communities such as tropical forests at low to mid‐elevations.     

Slipping through the Cracks: The Taxonomic Impediment Conceals the Origin and Dispersal of Haminoea japonica,an Invasive Species with Impacts to Human Health

Haminoea japonica is a species of opisthobranch sea slug native to Japan and Korea. Non-native populations have spread unnoticed for decades due to difficulties in the taxonomy of Haminoea species. Haminoea japonica is associated with a schistosome parasite in San Francisco Bay, thus further spread could have consequence to human health and economies. Anecdotal evidence suggests that H. japonica has displaced native species of Haminoea in North America and Europe, becoming locally dominant in estuaries and coastal lagoons. In this paper we study the population genetics of native and non-native populations of H. japonica based on mt-DNA data including newly discovered populations in Italy and France. The conclusions of this study further corroborate a Northeastern Japan origin for the non-native populations and suggest possible independent introductions into North America and Europe. Additionally, the data obtained revealed possible secondary introductions within Japan. Although non-native populations have experienced severe genetic bottlenecks they have colonized different regions with a broad range of water temperatures and other environmental conditions. The environmental tolerance of this species, along with its ability to become dominant in invaded areas and its association with a schistosome parasite, suggest H. japonica could be a dangerous invasive species.     

Variation in resource exploitation along an altitudinal gradient: the willow psyllids (Cacopsylla spp.) on Salix lapponum

Three congeneric species of Salix -fedding psyllid Cacospsylla spp. Occur along an altitudinal gradient (988 1222 m. a.s.l.) in southern Norway. The 27-km transect covered the local altitudinal range of the three species. Each species showed a different characteristic altitudinal distribution: C. propinqua occurred over the entire altitudinal range of the transect C. palmeni was restricted to higher altitude and C brunneipennis occurred manly at lower altitudes. This pattern of local altitudinal distribution mirrored the broader geographical distributions of these psyllids along latitudinal gradients. All three species developed on willow catkins, but also made use of leaves. Species differed in their use of leaves with >10% of sampled individuals of C. brunncipennis or C. Palmeni developing on leaves compared with up to 80% in C. propinqua. The proportion of C. propinqua nymphs developing on catkins increased with altitude and was also related to the temporal and spatial availability of catkins but was not a result of competitive displacement from catkins. Nitrogen concentration of host plants did not affect the proportions of C propinqua on leaves or catkins and was not related to adult size or psyllid density on catkins. Patterns or resource use are discussed in relation to differences in the distribution and abundance of the three species along the transect.     

Species richness and trait composition of butterfly assemblages change along an altitudinal gradient

Species richness patterns along altitudinal gradients are well-documented ecological phenomena, yet very little data are available on how environmental filtering processes influence the composition and traits of butterfly assemblages at high altitudes. We have studied the diversity patterns of butterfly species at 34 sites along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 600 to 2,000 m a.s.l. in the National Park Berchtesgaden (Germany) and analysed traits of butterfly assemblages associated with dispersal capacity, reproductive strategies and developmental time from lowlands to highlands, including phylogenetic analyses. We found a linear decline in butterfly species richness along the altitudinal gradient, but the phylogenetic relatedness of the butterfly assemblages did not increase with altitude. Compared to butterfly assemblages at lower altitudes, those at higher altitudes were composed of species with larger wings (on average 9 %) which laid an average of 68 % more eggs. In contrast, egg maturation time in butterfly assemblages decreased by about 22 % along the altitudinal gradient. Further, butterfly assemblages at higher altitudes were increasingly dominated by less widespread species. Based on our abundance data, but not on data in the literature, population density increased with altitude, suggesting a reversed density–distribution relationship, with higher population densities of habitat specialists in harsh environments. In conclusion, our data provide evidence for significant shifts in the composition of butterfly assemblages and for the dominance of different traits along the altitudinal gradient. In our study, these changes were mainly driven by environmental factors, whereas phylogenetic filtering played a minor role along the studied altitudinal range.     

Vegetation in a high Andean transect between Turi and Cerro León in Northern Chile

This paper reports the results of a phytosociological and gradient analysis of the vegetation occurring along an altitudinal gradient from Turi (3100 m) to Cerro León (4250 m) on the western flank of the Andes in northern Chile (22°06′–22°22′ S; 68°15′–68°07′ W). Along the transect, the total cover of vegetation ranges from 2.5% at the lower end to 35.7% at 4000 m altitude. Four major physiognomic zones, including six associations are recognized within the transect studied: (1) The ‘Pre-Puna’ belt (2700–3150 m), characterized by a sparse cover of xerophytic subshrubs, including two associations: Acantholippia deserticola-Franseria meyeniana, which occurs over the sedimentary sands around Turi, and Franseria meyeniana-Helogyne macrogyne-Helianthocereus atacamensis, restricted to ravines and canyons. (2) The ‘Puna’ belt (3150–3850 m), physiognomically dominated by shrubs and presenting the highest vegetational cover, including the: Fabiana densa-Baccharis boliviensis, and Junellia seriphioides-Baccharis incarum-Lampaya medicinalis, associations. (3) The ‘High-Andean’ belt, localized above the ‘Puna’, including the Fabiana bryoides-Adesmia horrida and Oxalis exigua-Mulinum crassifolium associations. (4) The ‘Subnival’ belt, a high mountain semi-desert with a poorly developed vegetation. Only three species occur at the upper vegetational limit (4380 m). The phytosociological scheme proposed in this paper can be paralleled with that by Ruthsatz (1977) for the eastern flank of the Andes. A marked contrast in species richness and phytosociological complexity between these Andean regions is pointed out. Lower species richness of the Chilean transect is related to the presence of the Atacama desert, which extends from the coast up to 2700 m in the study area.     

Co-dependency between a specialist <Emphasis Type="Italic">Andrena</Emphasis> bee and its death camas host, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Toxicoscordion paniculatum</Emphasis>

Among associations of plants and their pollinating bees, mutually specialized pairings are rare. Typically, either pollen specialist (oligolectic) bees are joined by polylectic bees in a flowering species’ pollinator guild, or specialized flowers are pollinated by one or more polylectic bees. The bee Andrena astragali is a narrow oligolege, collecting pollen solely from two nearly identical species of death camas (Toxicoscordion, formerly Zigadenus). Neurotoxic alkaloids of these plants are implicated in sheep and honey bee poisoning. In this study, T. paniculatum, T. venenosum and co-flowering forbs were sampled for bees at 15 sites along a 900-km-long east–west transect across the northern Great Basin plus an altitudinal gradient in northern Utah’s Bear River Range. Only A. astragali bees were regularly seen visiting flowering panicles of these Toxicoscordion. In turn, this bee was never among the 170 bee species caught at 17 species of other prevalent co-occurring wildflowers in the same five state region (38,000 plants surveyed). Our field pollination experiments show that T. paniculatum is primarily an outcrosser dependent on pollinator visitation for most capsule and seed set. Thus, both A. astragali and two sister species of Toxicoscordion are narrowly specialized and co-dependent on each other for reproduction, illustrating a rare case of obligate mutual specialization in bee–plant interactions.     

Adaptive characteristics of grassland community structure and leaf traits along an altitudinal gradient on a subtropical mountain in Chongqing,China

Community structure and leaf traits are important elements of terrestrial ecosystems. Changes of community structure and leaf traits are of particular use in the study of the influence of climate change on terrestrial ecosystems. Patterns of community structure (including species richness, above- and below-ground biomass) and leaf traits (including leaf mass per area (LMA), nitrogen content both on mass and area bases (N _mass and N _area), and foliar δ¹³C) from 19 grassland plots along an altitudinal transect at Hongchiba in Chongqing, China, were analyzed. Species richness along the altitudinal transect had a hump-shaped pattern. Above-ground biomass had a quadratic decrease along the altitudinal gradient whereas below-ground biomass had the opposite pattern. Change of above-ground biomass of various taxonomic groups with altitude was also studied. Poaceae showed strong negative relationships and Asteraceae showed a hump-shaped relationship with increase of altitude. Five common species of the grassland, Trifolium pratense, Geranium wilfordii, Aster tataricus, Leontopodium leontopodioides, and Spiraea prunifolia, were particularly studied for variation of leaf traits along the altitudinal gradient. Averaged for all species, LMA, N _area and foliar δ¹³C had positive correlations with altitude. N _mass did not change significantly as altitude increased. LMA and N _area showed significant positive relationships with foliar δ¹³C. The adaptive features of leaf traits among different species were not consistent. The study highlights specific adaptation patterns in relation to altitude for different plant species, provides further insights into adaptive trends of community structure and leaf traits in a specific ecological region filling a gap in the definition of global patterns, and adds to the understanding of how adaptive patterns of plants may respond to global climate change.     

Patterns and origin of intraspecific functional variability in a tropical alpine species along an altitudinal gradient

Background : Intraspecific functional variability (IFV) along altitudinal gradients is a powerful proxy to infer the responses of plants to abrupt environmental changes. We envisage that IFV shows distinctive patterns in tropical and extratropical alpine regions.

Aims : To characterise the patterns and explore the origin of IFV in a tropical alpine species in a context of upward range extension.

Methods : We examined variations in a series of plant functional traits in Lasiocephalus ovatus, inside and outside a nurse plant along a 600 m altitudinal gradient in the Ecuadorian Andes, and we studied its genetic variability.

Results : More conservative traits were developed at higher elevation, in contrast to extratropical alpine plants, which commonly develop opportunistic traits in response to late snowmelt close to their upper altitudinal limit. The presence of nurse cushions did not alter this trend. Increasing genetic distance along the gradient suggested that IFV might be partly genetically induced.

Conclusions : Our data combined with existing literature in tropical alpine environments lead the way to a stimulating scientific challenge: determining if patterns of plant altitudinal distribution in tropical alpine areas in response to climate change are predictable from patterns described in extratropical alpine areas.