基于茎干直径微变化制定苹果灌溉制度

茎干直径的动态微变化是研究植物体水分和生长状况的重要指标。利用测树器监测西北旱区盛果期苹果树茎干直径微变化规律,根据监测记录获得茎干直径日最大值(MXTD)、茎干直径日最大收缩量(MDS)数据,并探讨茎干直径微变化规律及其对环境因素的响应,为茎干直径微变化用于指导精确灌溉提供科学依据。实验结果表明,晴天或多云天气下,苹果树茎干直径在每天的7:00或8:00时刻达到一天最大值,在16:00左右达到一天的最小值,茎干直径年增长量与果实产量成反比例关系。整个生育期MXTD呈先快速增加后平稳的变化特征。2010年MDS与茎干水势(φstem)呈显著负相关关系(r2=0.76***,n=14),这表明MDS可以反映苹果树的水势状况。生育后期的MDS对环境因素响应比生育前期敏感,全生育期MDS与气象因素的决定系数大小顺序为日最大水汽压差(VPDmax)日最高温度(Tmax)净辐射(Rn)。茎干直径微变化规律可以反映西北旱区盛果期果树的水分状况,可以为果园灌溉制度的确定提供科学依据。     

The Growth of Apple Fruitlets, and the Effect of Early Thinning on Fruit Development: With fourteen Figures in the Text

The development of fruitlets of the apple varieties Cox's OrangePippin and Miller's Seedling was investigated with particularreference to rate and duration of cortical cell division andexpansion. The fruitlet weight increases slowly for the first few daysafter pollination, then exponentially at a rapid rate for about3 weeks, and then at a declining rate until harvest. The rate of cell division is very rapid during the exponentialphase of fruitlet growth, and then the rate declines, but divisioncontinues until about 12 weeks after full bloom in Miller'sSeedling and for at least 6 or 7 weeks after pollination inCox's Orange Pippin. The cells expand exponentially until about 7 weeks after pollination,then continue to expand at a diminishing rate until harvest. Heavy pre-blossom thinning increased fruit size and weight,affecting the rate of both cell division and cell expansion;the differences in fruit weight showed by the 4th week and incortical cell number and cell diameter by the 5th week afterfull bloom.     

基于STICS模型的黄土高原苹果园生态系统服务评估

苹果园在确保最大生产力的同时应适当考虑环境和自然资源,如何权衡其生态系统服务是苹果园可持续发展面临的重要问题之一。利用大田试验和STICS模型相结合的方法研究农业管理措施和气候对黄土高原苹果园生态系统服务的影响,并在此基础上对黄土高原南部半湿润区和北部半干旱区土壤氮可利用性、气候调节、水循环调节和果实生产四种苹果园生态系统服务进行了系统的评估。结果表明:(1)STICS模型均能较好模拟白水和子洲试验果园的产量、单果重、土壤含水量和蒸散发等生态系统服务指标;(2)除固碳与产量、单果重及果树相关指标是协同关系以外,其他生态系统服务之间都是权衡关系;(3)对于各管理措施下的果园平均服务标准值,秸秆覆盖(0.67)>地布覆盖(0.52)>清耕(0.30),充分灌溉(0.56)>轻度亏缺灌溉(0.44)>重度亏缺灌溉(0.30),其中秸秆覆盖和充分灌溉的果园服务概况最佳,地布覆盖和轻度亏缺灌溉的果园服务概况较相似且最平衡;(4)地布覆盖和轻度亏缺灌溉管理措施缓和权衡作用的效果优于其他管理措施。综上所述,STICS模型能够较好的量化果园生态系统服务概况,农业管理措施是果园生态系统服务强有力的驱动因子。     

Response of plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to odor-baited traps near woods.

Response of overwintered plum curculios, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), to odor-baited traps was evaluated from the beginning until nearly the end of emigration from overwintering sites in woods. We evaluated clear sticky Plexiglas panels and black pyramid traps placed close to woods adjacent to apple trees in an unsprayed section of an orchard. Traps were baited with aggregation pheromone (grandisoic acid) alone or in combination with one of six synthetic fruit volatiles (benzaldehvde, decyl aldehyde, E-2-hexenal, ethyl isovalerate, hexyl acetate, or limonene). Unbaited traps served as a control treatment. Plum curculio emigration from woods was divided into early-, mid-, and late-season periods based primarily on phenological stage of apple bud and fruit development (tight cluster to bloom, petal fall, and fruit set, respectively). During both early- and late season, panel and pyramid traps baited with benzaldehyde plus pheromone were significantly more attractive than any other traps (baited or unbaited), except panel traps baited with ethyl isovalerate plus pheromone in early season, which likewise captured significantly more adults than unbaited panel traps. During midseason, no lures were significantly attractive, possibly due to prevailing cool weather, unfavorable for adult activity. Over the entire season, panel or pyramid traps baited with benzaldehyde plus pheromone captured nearly six times as many plum curculios as unbaited traps of each type, whereas traps baited with pheromone alone captured about twice as many as unbaited traps of each type. We provide information on sex ratio, female maturity stage, and mating status, and several weather parameters associated with trap captures. We conclude that panel or pyramid traps, or a combination, baited with benzaldehyde plus pheromone placed at borders of plum curculio overwintering sites can be a valuable tool for monitoring the beginning, peak, and end of adult immigration into apple orchards.     

大颗粒活化腐植酸肥对苹果土壤团聚体和有机碳的影响

新型大颗粒活化腐植酸肥(LAF)在苹果化肥减量和果实稳产方面的效果显著,探明其对土壤团聚体和有机碳的影响是揭示该新型肥料对苹果土壤结构影响的重要依据。本研究设置4个LAF处理:LAF₁[全量施肥,施肥时期及重量比(下同):萌芽期∶膨果期∶成熟期=3∶4∶3]、LAF₂(全量施肥,萌芽期∶膨果期∶成熟期=2∶3∶5)、LAF₃(减量1/4施肥,萌芽期∶膨果期∶成熟期=2∶3∶5)、LAF₄(减量1/3施肥,萌芽期∶膨果期∶成熟期=2∶3∶5),以不施肥(CK)处理为对照。通过4年盆栽试验,研究苹果土壤团聚体组成、稳定性和有机碳对不同施肥处理的响应。结果表明: 1)与CK相比,LAF各处理显著提高了土壤水稳性大团聚体含量,>2 mm和2~0.25 mm粒径团聚体含量分别提高了53.4%~77.5%和12.3%~17.0%,且提高幅度随施肥量的增加而增大,其中LAF₁处理土壤水稳性大团聚体含量最高。2)LAF各处理在各粒径团聚体含量上差异不显著,其中2~0.25 mm粒径团聚体含量所占的比例最高。3)与CK相比,LAF各处理均显著提高了团聚体平均重量直径(MWD)和几何平均直径(GMD),降低了分形维数(D),其中LAF₁处理的MWD和GMD值最高,对土壤团聚体稳定性提升效果最好。4)除LAF₄外,其他LAF处理土壤有机碳含量均显著高于CK,其中LAF₂处理土壤有机碳含量最高;LAF各处理均增加了土壤各粒径团聚体有机碳含量,LAF₁、LAF₂、LAF₃处理显著提高了>2 mm粒径团聚体有机碳含量,且>2 mm团聚体有机碳对总有机碳的贡献率最大;LAF各处理的水稳性大团聚体有机碳对总有机碳的贡献率均显著高于CK,且贡献率均在66.0%以上,其中LAF₁处理最高。综上,施用LAF在促进苹果土壤水稳性大团聚体形成和稳定性、提高团聚体有机碳含量上应用效果显著,其中全量施用效果最好。施用LAF可作为改善苹果土壤结构和提升土壤肥力的有效措施。     

渭北旱塬苹果园土壤紧实化现状及成因

本研究通过分析渭北旱塬苹果园土壤的紧实化现状及其诱导因素,找出影响当地苹果园健康发展的土壤退化隐性因素,为果园科学管理提供理论依据。分别选取种植年限＜10年(4～6年)、10～20年(14～16年)和＞20年(24～26年)的苹果园各4个,分析0～60 cm土层土壤容重和紧实度随土层深度的变化规律,探明果园土壤内部紧实化发生的部位和退化程度,同时,通过分析土壤团聚体数量及其稳定性、土壤黏粒和有机质含量,揭示引起渭北果园土壤内部紧实化的原因。结果表明: 渭北果园0～60 cm土层土壤容重和紧实度均随植果年限和土层深度的增加而显著增大。以20 cm土层为界,渭北各园龄段苹果园土壤具有明显的“上松下实”变异特征,20 cm以上土层上述各指标基本满足苹果树的正常生长需求,20 cm以下土层土壤则已超出了苹果树健康生长的阈值。造成渭北苹果园亚表层以下土壤紧实化的原因主要是土壤团聚作用差、有机质含量低,加之植果期间人为扰动少,土壤中分散的黏粒会向下层移动。此外,随着植果年限的增加,土壤紧实化过程更加明显。     

疏花对富士苹果光合同化物分配的外部调节和生理表现

在盛花期,利用对树冠不同部位疏除花序的试验。对富士苹果树体内同化物的调配及其生理表现进行了研究。结果表明,苹果平均单果重和平均单果叶面积之间关系呈线性正相关。该相关关系在不同处理之间无差异（r=0.91),充分说明在苹果树体内存在一个可自由流动的碳水化合物库或者说树体对结果具有光合调节作用,疏花可以从外部调节光合同化物分配的方向。对每株苹果树未结果部位和结果部位短枝及延长枝叶片净光合速率测定表明。结果和未结果部位光合速率没有显著差异。虽然疏花没有显著影响苹果单株枝条生长量和叶面积,但是,苹果树树冠全部疏除花序的一侧 或主枝的平均枝条生长量和叶面积去比该树其它结果部位分别平均高出153.5cm和8900cm^2,差异极为显著。苹果树疏除花序1/2或3/4的数量使苹果平均单果重比不疏花分别显著增加了33g或79g。而果实钙浓度每百克鲜重分别降低了1.62mg或2.66mg,充分说明当疏花显著地影响果实大小时,果实内钙浓度也会明显地发生相应的变化,虽然在疏花处理之间不同部位疏除花序没有影响单株花芽总数量,但是,每株树前一年春季疏花的部位比未疏花,结果的部位极显著地增加了花芽数量（SED=11.6)。     

Challenges in predicting climate change impacts on pome fruit phenology

Climate projection data were applied to two commonly used pome fruit flowering models to investigate potential differences in predicted full bloom timing. The two methods, fixed thermal time and sequential chill-growth, produced different results for seven apple and pear varieties at two Australian locations. The fixed thermal time model predicted incremental advancement of full bloom, while results were mixed from the sequential chill-growth model. To further investigate how the sequential chill-growth model reacts under climate perturbed conditions, four simulations were created to represent a wider range of species physiological requirements. These were applied to five Australian locations covering varied climates. Lengthening of the chill period and contraction of the growth period was common to most results. The relative dominance of the chill or growth component tended to predict whether full bloom advanced, remained similar or was delayed with climate warming. The simplistic structure of the fixed thermal time model and the exclusion of winter chill conditions in this method indicate it is unlikely to be suitable for projection analyses. The sequential chill-growth model includes greater complexity; however, reservations in using this model for impact analyses remain. The results demonstrate that appropriate representation of physiological processes is essential to adequately predict changes to full bloom under climate perturbed conditions with greater model development needed.     

渭北旱塬苹果园地产量和深层土壤水分效应模拟

为了研究实时气象条件下渭北旱塬不同生长年限苹果园地产量变化趋势和深层土壤水分变化规律,在模型适用性与模拟精度验证基础上,应用WinEPIC模型模拟研究了1962—2001年期间洛川旱塬苹果园地产量演变动态和深层土壤水分效应。结果表明：(1) 在模拟研究期间,洛川旱塬4—40年生苹果园产量整体上呈波动性下降趋势,初期产量逐渐增加,11—23年生达到最大值(平均为28.8 t/hm2),之后随降水量年际波动呈现出明显的波动性降低趋势。(2) 40年间苹果园地遭受的干旱胁迫日数呈波动性上升趋势,与年降水量波动趋势相反。(3) 1—15年生期间苹果园地平均年耗水量高于同期年降水量,导致苹果园地0—10 m土层土壤强烈干燥化,逐月土壤有效含水量波动性降低,1—10年生、11—20年生和21—40年生期间发生土壤干燥化并且程度逐渐加剧,但干燥化速率逐渐减缓,土壤干燥化速率分别为95.4 mm/a、12 mm/a和1.5 mm/a。(4) 随生长年限的延长,苹果园地0—10 m土层土壤湿度逐渐降低、土壤干层分布深度逐渐加大,在14年生时超过了10 m,20年生以后2—10 m 土层形成稳定的土壤干层。因此,基于土壤水分利用的苹果生长与果园利用的合理年限为20 a,最长不宜超过23 a。     

Strapping and a synthetic cytokinin promote cell enlargement in ‘Hiratanenashi’ Japanese persimmon

The effects of N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N′-phenylurea (CPPU) with and without strapping on fruit growth of ‘Hiratanenashi’ Japanese persimmon were evaluated by measuring parenchyma cell size and the number of cell layers in mesocarp throughout fruit development. Three-year-old branches were strapped with a wire 2 weeks before full bloom, and 10 mg l⁻¹ of CPPU was applied to the fruitlet at 10 days after full bloom. CPPU alone prolonged the growth period, resulting in a larger fruit diameter at harvest than the control. Strapping promoted the fruit coloration and increased final fruit diameter. CPPU plus strapping shortened the growth period compared to CPPU alone, and the mature fruit diameter was similar to CPPU alone. The increases in fruit diameter caused by CPPU and strapping were involved with the increases in length of parenchyma cell. The number of cell layers was almost similar among the treatments. These results showed that strapping promotes the rate of parenchyma cell expansion, and CPPU with and without strapping prolong the duration of cell enlargement and promote the rate of the cell expansion.     

Comparative survival rates of oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larvae on shoots and fruit of apple and peach

Studies were designed to examine the effects of host plants on oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), survival. G. molesta larval survival in the orchard was comparable between apple (Malus spp.) and peach (Prunus spp.) shoots, indicating that both host species can harbor large larval populations during the early season. G. molesta larvae used multiple shoots for feeding and development on peaches but usually only damaged single shoots in apple. Survival differences were present between peach and apple fruit, but this survival was affected by fruit maturity level. Generally, larval survival higher was in ripening peach fruit than in green, immature apple fruit. Larval survival varied among several apple cultivars, indicating that cultivar-level variability needs to be considered. These host-associated effects may impact efforts to predictively model G. molesta populations in commercial orchards where multiple host plant species, or different cultivars of the same species are often grown in proximity. Thus, host-associated dynamics should be included into future population models that underlie management programs.     

Vessel differentiation in the pedicel of apple and the effects of auxin transport inhibition

The growth dynamics of vessel formation and the effect of auxin transport inhibition on vessel differentiation were investigated in the pedicel of developing apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.). Quantitative microscopic analysis showed that a majority of vessels were differentiated pre-bloom with the commencement of pedicel extension but that the full conducting capacity of the xylem was attained shortly after bloom. The effect of a post-bloom application of N -(1-Napthyl)phthalamic acid showed that an auxin-like signal emanating from the young fruit not only stimulated vessel differentiation in the pedicel but also controlled fruit abscission and the development of the seed and fruit.     

The Photosynthetic Activity of Cox's Orange Pippin Apple Flowers in Relation to Fruit Setting

The ability of green parts of Cox's apple flowers (sepals, receptacleand pedicel) to photosynthesise was demonstrated using ¹⁴CO,feed experiments and an infra-red gas analysis (IRGA) system.The sepals had the greatest ability, comparable with that ofleaves, followed by the receptacle. Sepals and leaves fixedthe same amount of CO₂ in the dark. Photosynthesis and respirationrates in orchard flowers were measured in comparison to thoseof leaves. Flower gross photosynthesis (GP) was about a thirdof that of leaves at the balloon stage and 15 d after full bloomin 1987, but this ratio was much less at full bloom (FB) inthe same year. GP in flowers decreased rapidly with fruitletenlargement. It was estimated that flower photosynthesis significantly contributedto their carbohydrate balance (15-33%) during the floweringand fruit setting periods. The highest contributions were made at the green cluster stage(33%) and between 6 and 11 d after FB (27%), the period whenthe fruit set had been initiated. Removal of sepals, the mainphotosynthetic parts of the flower, at the pink bud stage decreasedinitial set. The results suggest that flower photosynthesismight play an important role in flower growth and fruit setting.Copyright1994, 1999 Academic Press Apple, photosynthesis, respiration, fruit setting, flower photosynthesis, sepal removal     

棉花根系生长和空间分布特征

结合田间根钻取样和图像扫描分析方法, 研究了不同棉花品种根系的长度、直径和表面积动态及 0~ 10 0cm深和 0~ 4 0cm宽土壤范围内的空间分布特征。该方法与常规直尺测量结果相比相关系数R2 达到 0.899 (n =1318), 显示了较好的可靠性。研究结果表明, 棉花平均根长密度 (RLD) 在花铃期为 1.2 1~ 1.2 7mm·cm-3, 吐絮后降至 1.0 4~ 1.12mm·cm-3, 收花时为 0.76mm·cm-3 。棉花根平均直径在不同基因型间存在显著差异, 抗虫杂交棉的根直径最粗, 平均为 0.5 2mm ;早熟类型品种根直径较细, 平均为 0.36mm。在土壤深度上根直径的差异不显著, 但距棉行距离越远, 根的平均直径越小。在明确根系长度和直径动态规律的基础上, 提出了根表面积指数 (RAI) 的概念, 与地上部叶面积指数具有相似的含义和生物学意义, 且呈较好的指数相关关系 (R2 =0.779) 。RAI在生理发育时间 (PDT) 小于等于 4 0前, 其增长动态符合LOGISTIC生长规律 (R2 =0.84 9), 在PDT大于 4 0后, 呈线性递减趋势 (R2 =0.5 70~ 0.895 ), 且杂交抗虫棉的RAI在全生育期内均明显高于其它类型品种, 而早熟类型品种相对略低。RAI空间分布特征表现为, 开花前在浅根层内 (0~ 30cm) 分布最多, 花铃期以中层根系 (40~ 6 0cm) 为主, 吐絮后主要以深层 (70~ 10 0cm) 和距棉行较远的行间较多。研究结果为制定合理的施肥、灌溉措施提供了理论依据, 并量化了棉花根系的时空变化, 为进一步提高生长发育模拟模型的精度奠定了基础。     

The impact of cover crop shoot decomposition on soil microorganisms in an apple orchard in northeast China

Mowing can facilitate the incorporation of cover crop shoots into soil and improve the properties of soils in apple orchards. This article evaluated how apple orchard soil responds to the decomposition of the shoot residues of three cover crops[native mixed herbs (NMS), red clover (RCS), and ryegrass (RES)] in terms of microbial metabolism and biomass, and discussed the relationships between microbial responses and shoot chemistry. The chemical composition of shoots was analysed and a buried bag experiment was carried out to simulate shoot decomposition in an apple orchard. The results revealed significant differences in the chemical compositions and shoot C:N ratios (NMS: 10.9, RCS: 19.1, and RES: 12.9) of the three cover crops. The decomposition of the cover crop shoots promoted microbial metabolism and boosted soil bacterial reproduction (increase in the biomass indicator muramic acid: 19.44, 124.15, and 14.83 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. But there are different types of effects on soil fungal reproduction (change in the biomass indicator glucosamine: 712.51, 887.45, and 103.97 mg kg⁻¹), and they are obviously negative, significantly positive, and non-significant respectively. Thus, the native mixed herbs and red clover are preferable swards for better shoot enhancement in apple orchard.     

Olive fruit fly adult response to attract-and-kill bait stations in greenhouse cages with weathered bait spray and a commercial table olive orchard

Attract-and-kill bait stations and olive foliage sprayed with insecticidal bait spray and exposed to 0–4 weeks of weather were evaluated for efficacy by olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), adult mortality. Mortality in greenhouse cage tests was significantly higher after three days than one day of exposure to non-weathered bait spray on bait stations and foliage, and on bait stations exposed to weather for three weeks. Mortality increased with an increase in insect exposure time, and decreased as bait spray weather exposure increased. Mortality was higher on bait stations than on olive foliage, and treated foliage showed little toxicity after 4 weeks in weather. In a commercial orchard, bait station efficacy was determined by captures of adults on yellow panel traps. Day temperatures were slightly higher on the underside of the station than top from 2 May to 10 July, similar on the top and underside 11 July to 7 August, and slightly lower on the underside from 8 August to 4 September. Fruit length increased from 0.4 on 16 May to 3 cm on 24 September and on 30 May attained 1 cm, the minimum size to produce one adult. No larvae or adults emerged from collected fruit. More adults were captured in an untreated row than a row with bait stations until 22 August and significantly so for the period ending on 11 July. Maximum adult captures occurred during 2 weeks prior to 19 September. Attract-and-kill bait stations would help reduce insecticidal applications and table olive production costs.     

Screening preharvest/postharvest strategies to prevent fruit rot decay

In fruit growing preharvest sprayings in the orchard are mainly applied to protect fruit from decaying. Next to multisite fungicides (captan, thiram, tolylfluanid) the most commonly used products recognized for the Belgium market are Bellis (pyraclostrobin & boscalid) and the combination of Topsin M (thiophanate-methyl) and Frugico (diethofencarb). In general the spraying schedule varies depending on weather conditions (infection risk), preharvest interval of available fungicides, fruitgrower and cultivar of pome fruit (apple/pear). Facing the climatological conditions before picking the residue loading on the fruit surface can differ enormously. Also wet (pre)grading is considered to decrease the product residue resulting to fruits which are less protected before entering the cold storage room. In this context a partially replacement of the preharvest treatments by one postharvest application could offer a reliable alternative to the PPP reduction program (Plant Protection Products) in the orchard. A standardized application method by dipping or drenching will cover the fruits homogenically resulting in a rationalized fungicide use compared to the preharvest sprayings in the orchard. For the Belgium market Philabuster (imazalil & pyrimethanil) is registered for postharvest treatments since for this product a proper solution for the waste water of postharvest uses was developed to protect surface waters (Funds technology). Philabuster provides an advanced mould control towards fruit rot pathogens Gloeosporium spp., Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium spp. In this context several trials were set up to evaluate the biological efficacy of Philabuster alone or in combination with preharvest sprayings in the orchard. In concrete different preharvest spraying schedules were applied in the last six weeks before harvest on apple and pear facing parameters as rational fungicide use, antifungal effectiveness and cost price. The purpose was to select the optimal combination in use of preharvest fungicides with Philabuster as postharvest treatment, which offer full protection towards all key pathogens in apple and pear.     

黄土旱塬区苹果园土壤水分动态

选取黄土旱塬区盛果期果园,于2009-2013年对0～500 cm土层土壤含水量进行连续监测,了解其土壤水分动态变化规律.结果表明： 平水年,苹果园耗水主要发生在0～300 cm土层;年降水量小于400 mm时,果树主要消耗300 cm以下土层土壤水分;受年降水量和苹果耗水的共同影响,200～300 cm土层是土壤水分的最大波动层;苹果园4-6月底季节性干旱明显,土壤水分的蓄积主要发生在7-10月中旬,该期的土壤蓄水能有效缓解下一年的春季干旱.     

The allometry of the weight of fruit on trees and shrubs in Barbados

Summary Branch sampling of branch diameter and fruit crop on 22 species of Barbadian trees and shrubs provided sufficient data to build regressions between plant size and fruit crop weight. Orchard plants bear much more fruit than wild, feral or garden plants of similar size, but this difference disappears in multiple regression of fruit crop weight (F in g, fresh mass) on branch or stem diameter (D in cm) and individual fruit weight (W in g): F=22D^1.2 W^0.57. This explains 89% of the variation in F and successfully predicts crop weight for wild tropical and temperate trees and shrubs, but underestimated the crops on commercial, temperate, fruit trees by an order of magnitude. Comparisons of crop weight for feral, wild, and garden plants (F_f) using a simple regression F_f=47D^1.9 show that crop weight is a minor load relative to branch weight for larger branches. Although fruit crops represent a declining proportion of total plant weight as plants become larger, the crops become larger relative to leaf and twig weight and in this sense, reproductive investment increases in larger plants. Finally, our equations, combined with the self-thinning rule, suggest that stands of large species of fruit plants produce more fruit per unit of land area than stands of small ones.