Forest conservation and environmental management in Nepal: a review

This paper provides information on the status of forests and environmental problems related to forestry in Nepal. It aims to integrate the conservation and sustainable management of forests as a part of environmental planning. A critical review of the main environmental problems with prioritization within the forestry sector; thorough review of all forest related documents, strategies, development plans, programs, institutional arrangements, policies mentioned in the Master Plan for Forestry Sector Nepal of 1988, and other relevant documents; identification of major gaps and constraints of forestry policy and plans and current practices of forest conservation and management have been done. The decline in forestry resources in Nepal took place in the past due to lack of appropriate policy to guide the legal, institutional and operational development for the forestry sector. Forestry policy in Nepal, in the past, was shaped by political and economic motives rather than ecological considerations. Policy formulation mechanisms exist in Nepal; however, there is an excessive delay in translating policies into legislation and then into operational rules and administrative orders. There is a need to implement the international obligations by transforming them into regulations in order to make them legally binding. The data to be generated in the coming years in the areas of forestry at both national and international levels suggest that we should revise the research priorities and strategies. Research to add value to the forest resource products has yet been neglected. More attention is required on regular monitoring and evaluation of the projects. A thorough evaluation of the programs and planning for the forestry sector in Nepal is urgently required to update the progress and revise the programs.     

The Origin of the USDA Regional Biomass Research Centers

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Regional Biomass Research Centers (RBRC) were created to contribute to the planning, research, and development of entire long-term sustainable biofuel production supply chains based on agricultural and forest-based feedstocks. The intent of the centers is to provide a catalyst that links feedstock genetic development, sustainable production and management, logistics, conversion, co-product production, distribution, and market demand suited to the available economic, social, and natural resources within different regions. The centers provide a coordinated, region-based research focus designed with relatively short-term deliverables to help accelerate the commercial production of biomass and other biofuel feedstocks. The centers provide a leadership structure for coordinating biomass research across the country, providing a national perspective that complements other USDA agency efforts designed to help US rural communities participate in the emerging biofuels and biobased products economy. Through coordination with the RBRC, USDA research and service agency programs and resources have been leveraged with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and other federal department, university, and private industry efforts to help accelerate commercial advancement of advanced biofuel production to promote rural economic opportunities and achieve transportation biofuel policy goals.     

A review of thermal-chemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass in China

Biomass, a renewable, sustainable and carbon dioxide neutral resource, has received widespread attention in the energy market as an alternative to fossil fuels. Thermal-chemical conversion of biomass to produce biofuels is a promising technology with many commercial applications. This paper reviewed the state-of-the-art research and development of thermal-chemical conversion of biomass in China with a special focus on gasification, pyrolysis, and catalytic transformation technologies. The advantages and disadvantages, potential of future applications, and challenges related to these technologies are discussed. Conclusively, these transformation technologies for the second-generation biofuels with using non-edible lignocellulosic biomass as feedstocks show prosperous perspective for commercial applications in near future.     

A stakeholder perspective into wildlife policy in India

We investigated perceptions of wildlife policy and issues through questionnaires (n = 148) administered to policy makers, conservation scientists, individuals representing non-government organizations (NGOs), and field officials, who implemented government policies and enforced laws. We found significant differences among attitudes of stakeholders identifying major threats to wildlife, the use of science, the role of poaching in conservation, and the composition of species illegally traded. Policy makers and field officials differed in their views with NGOs and scientists on community response to wildlife policies and the varying threat perceptions to different species due to poaching and illegal trade. We noted ambiguity among stakeholders about sustainable use principles in India. Policies must be more effective in conservation and the process of making policy must be broad-based and participatory if wildlife conservation is to advance on the subcontinent. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Perennial biomass cropping and use: Shaping the policy ecosystem in European countries

Demand for sustainably produced biomass is expected to increase with the need to provide renewable commodities, improve resource security and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in line with COP26 commitments. Studies have demonstrated additional environmental benefits of using perennial biomass crops (PBCs), when produced appropriately, as a feedstock for the growing bioeconomy, including utilisation for bioenergy (with or without carbon capture and storage). PBCs can potentially contribute to Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) (2023–27) objectives provided they are carefully integrated into farming systems and landscapes. Despite significant research and development (R&D) investment over decades in herbaceous and coppiced woody PBCs, deployment has largely stagnated due to social, economic and policy uncertainties. This paper identifies the challenges in creating policies that are acceptable to all actors. Development will need to be informed by measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of greenhouse gas emissions reductions and other environmental, economic and social metrics. It discusses interlinked issues that must be considered in the expansion of PBC production: (i) available land; (ii) yield potential; (iii) integration into farming systems; (iv) R&D requirements; (v) utilisation options; and (vi) market systems and the socio-economic environment. It makes policy recommendations that would enable greater PBC deployment: (1) incentivise farmers and land managers through specific policy measures, including carbon pricing, to allocate their less productive and less profitable land for uses which deliver demonstrable greenhouse gas reductions; (2) enable greenhouse gas mitigation markets to develop and offer secure contracts for commercial developers of verifiable low-carbon bioenergy and bioproducts; (3) support innovation in biomass utilisation value chains; and (4) continue long-term, strategic R&D and education for positive environmental, economic and social sustainability impacts.     

Linking a farm model and a location optimization model for evaluating energetic and material straw valorization pathways—A case study in Baden‐Wuerttemberg

Diminishing fossil carbon resources, global warming, and increasing material and energy needs urge for the rapid development of a bioeconomy. Biomass feedstock from agro‐industrial value chains provides opportunities for energy and material production, potentially leading to competition with traditional food and feed production. Simulation and optimization models can support the evaluation of biomass value chains and identify bioeconomy development paths, potentials, opportunities, and risks. This study presents the linkage of a farm model (EFEM) and a techno‐economic location optimization model (BIOLOCATE) for evaluating the straw‐to‐energy and the innovative straw‐to‐chemical value chains in the German federal state of Baden‐Wuerttemberg taking into account the spatially distributed and price‐sensitive nature of straw supply. The general results reveal the basic trade‐off between economies of scale of the energy production plants and the biorefineries on the one hand and the feedstock supply costs on the other hand. The results of the farm model highlight the competition for land between traditional agricultural biomass utilization such as food and feed and innovative biomass‐to‐energy and biomass‐to‐chemical value chains. Additionally, farm‐modeling scenarios illustrate the effect of farm specialization and regional differences on straw supply for biomass value chains as well as the effect of high straw prices on crop choices. The technological modeling results show that straw combustion could cover approximately 2% of Baden‐Wuerttemberg's gross electricity consumption and approximately 35% of the district heating consumption. The lignocellulose biorefinery location and size are affected by the price sensitivity of the straw supply and are only profitable for high output prices of organosolv lignin. The location optimization results illustrate that economic and political framework conditions affect the regional distribution of biomass straw conversion plants, thus favoring decentralized value chain structures in contrast to technological economies of scale.     

Downscaling of agricultural market impacts under bioeconomy development to the regional and the farm level—An example of Baden‐Wuerttemberg

The expansion of the bioeconomy sector will increase the competition for agricultural land regarding biomass production. Furthermore, the particular path of the expansion of the bioeconomy is associated with great uncertainty due to the early stage of technology development and its dependency on political framework conditions. Economic models are suitable tools to identify trade‐offs in agricultural production and address the high uncertainty of the bioeconomy expansion. We present results from the farm model Economic Farm Emission Model of four bioeconomy scenarios in order to evaluate impacts and trade‐offs of different potential bioeconomy developments and the corresponding uncertainty at regional and farm level in Baden‐Wuerttemberg, Germany. The demand‐side effects of the bioeconomy scenarios are based on downscaling European Union level results of a separate model linkage between an agricultural sector and an energy sector model. The general model results show that the expanded use of agricultural land for the bioeconomy sector, especially for the cultivation of perennial biomass crops (PBC), reduces biomass production for established value chains, especially for food and feed. The results also show differences between regions and farm types in Baden‐Wuerttemberg. Fertile arable regions and arable farms profit more from the expanded use of biomass in the bioeconomy than farms that focus on cattle farming. Latter farms use the arable land to produce feed for the cattle, whereas arable farms can expand feedstock production for new value chains. Additionally, less intensive production systems like extensive grassland suffer from economic losses, whereas the competition in fertile regions further increases. Hence, if the extensive production systems are to be preserved, appropriate subsidies must be provided. This emphasizes the relevance of downscaling aggregated model results to higher spatial resolution, even as far as to the decision maker (farm), to identify possible contradicting effects of the bioeconomy as well as policy implications.     

Rapid policy network mapping: a new method for understanding governance structures for implementation of marine environmental policy

Understanding the relationships and dependencies in the development and implementation of environmental policy is essential to the effective management of the marine environment. A new method of policy network analysis called 'Rapid Policy Network Mapping' was developed that delivers an insight for both technical and non-technical users into the lifecycle, relationships and dependencies of policy development. The method was applied to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the Water Framework Directive in the UK. These case studies highlight the environmental policy challenges to protect the UK's marine coastal environment and they identify differences in the styles of policy implementation between the devolved authorities of the UK. Rapid Policy Network Mapping provides an opportunity to create a collaborative policy data environment with a relatively small investment. As a tool for civil society it should assist in their ability to understand and influence policy making and implementation.     

Sustainable Cultivation Concepts for Domestic Energy Production from Biomass

Referee: Dr. J. Grant McLeod, Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Centre, Research Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, P.O. Box 1030 Swift Current, Saskatchewan S9H 3X2, Canada According to the European Union, biomass will play a major role in the substitution of fossil fuels with renewable resources. Biomass will contribute 83% to the increased use of renewable resources by the year 2010. In contrast to other solar energy sources, plant biomass is always available and can be converted into energy continuously. An important objective in the production of energy crops on arable farm land should be to realize a high net energy yield and fulfill obligations in the field of environmental protection. The “double cropping system” was developed to meet these obligations. Silaging as a conservation method for wet biomass makes this sustainable cultivation system possible. It includes a diverse array of crops and provides the opportunity to integrate rural organic wastes into this energy concept. The model presented, “the energy self supplying farm”, shows that it is possible to meet the energy consumption requirements of a livestock farming operation with energy crop production on 10 to 18% of the arable farm land. According to a new rape energy concept, a land resource requirement of roughly 10% is feasible if biomass residues from rape oil production for liquid fuels are also utilized for energy production. For a farm with livestock, anaerobic digestion technology is an appropriate technique to deliver heat and electricity for the farmstead. Digestion residues, used as fertilizer in energy crop production, results in an almost complete nutrient recycling. Energy output can be increased above the demand of the farm via the biogas reactor, using the total biomass produced with double cropping. Surplus electricity is supplied to the grid at a guaranteed price. Biomass is a domestic energy resource, and farmers have the chance to extend their function from a supplier of raw material to managers of domestic energy resources. Under the currently established framework, monetary return per hectare could be more than double with biomass energy production via biogas. This will allow the agricultural economy to recover and promote a sustainable regional development. In addition to being a convenient method of waste management, sustainable energy crop production can make a significant contribution to environmental protection and the improvement of the social and economic cohesion within a community.     

Ethanol distribution, dispensing, and use: analysis of a portion of the biomass-to-biofuels supply chain using system dynamics

The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 targets use of 36 billion gallons of biofuels per year by 2022. Achieving this may require substantial changes to current transportation fuel systems for distribution, dispensing, and use in vehicles. The U.S. Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory designed a system dynamics approach to help focus government action by determining what supply chain changes would have the greatest potential to accelerate biofuels deployment. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory developed the Biomass Scenario Model, a system dynamics model which represents the primary system effects and dependencies in the biomass-to-biofuels supply chain. The model provides a framework for developing scenarios and conducting biofuels policy analysis. This paper focuses on the downstream portion of the supply chain-represented in the distribution logistics, dispensing station, and fuel utilization, and vehicle modules of the Biomass Scenario Model. This model initially focused on ethanol, but has since been expanded to include other biofuels. Some portions of this system are represented dynamically with major interactions and feedbacks, especially those related to a dispensing station owner's decision whether to offer ethanol fuel and a consumer's choice whether to purchase that fuel. Other portions of the system are modeled with little or no dynamics; the vehicle choices of consumers are represented as discrete scenarios. This paper explores conditions needed to sustain an ethanol fuel market and identifies implications of these findings for program and policy goals. A large, economically sustainable ethanol fuel market (or other biofuel market) requires low end-user fuel price relative to gasoline and sufficient producer payment, which are difficult to achieve simultaneously. Other requirements (different for ethanol vs. other biofuel markets) include the need for infrastructure for distribution and dispensing and widespread use of high ethanol blends in flexible-fuel vehicles.     

Efforts for a Circular Economy in China: A Comprehensive Review of Policies

Circular economy concepts, practices, and policies are increasingly drawing attention as important means for the pursuit of sustainable development. This article uses a conceptual framework to catalogue and investigate policy efforts for the circular economy in China. Based on the framework, policy prototypes and specific examples are identified: resource‐oriented, production‐oriented, waste, and use‐oriented and life cycle policies. A comprehensive review of 280 related policies shows that China has a long history of resource‐oriented policies and implemented production‐oriented policies very quickly after the year 2000. China's policies toward the circular economy became more comprehensive through time, with a broad engagement of government agencies, an extensive and progressive coverage of recycling opportunities, production initiatives across multiple scales, and use of different policy instruments. The continuous progress has been driven by proactive state actors and their learning from the international society. The current policy framework, however, is concerned more with the means rather than the ends of the circular economy, and relies too much on direct subsidies and other financial incentives. Policy making can be improved by more explicit consideration of the whole production life cycle and use of market‐based policy design.     

Valorization of rendering industry wastes and co-products for industrial chemicals,materials and energy: review

Over the past decades, strong global demand for industrial chemicals, raw materials and energy has been driven by rapid industrialization and population growth across the world. In this context, long-term environmental sustainability demands the development of sustainable strategies of resource utilization. The agricultural sector is a major source of underutilized or low-value streams that accompany the production of food and other biomass commodities. Animal agriculture in particular constitutes a substantial portion of the overall agricultural sector, with wastes being generated along the supply chain of slaughtering, handling, catering and rendering. The recent emergence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) resulted in the elimination of most of the traditional uses of rendered animal meals such as blood meal, meat and bone meal (MBM) as animal feed with significant economic losses for the entire sector. The focus of this review is on the valorization progress achieved on converting protein feedstock into bio-based plastics, flocculants, surfactants and adhesives. The utilization of other rendering streams such as fat and ash rich biomass for the production of renewable fuels, solvents, drop-in chemicals, minerals and fertilizers is also critically reviewed.     

Forest Operations and Woody Biomass Logistics to Improve Efficiency,Value, and Sustainability

This paper reviews the most recent work conducted by scientists and engineers of the Forest Service of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) in the areas of forest operations and woody biomass logistics, with an emphasis on feedstock supply for emerging bioenergy, biofuels, and bioproducts applications. This work is presented in the context of previous research in this field by the agency and is measured against the goals and objectives provided by several important national-level initiatives, including the USDA Regional Biomass Research Centers. Research conducted over the past 5 years in cooperation with a diverse group of research partners is organized in four topic sections: innovative practices, innovative machines, sustainability, and integration. A wide range of studies in operations and logistics address advances in harvest and processing technology, transportation systems, scheduling and planning, feedstock quality, biomass conversion processes, and environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions. We also discuss potential future research to address persistent knowledge gaps, especially those in fire and fuel management. Overall, the research reviewed here aligns well with broad national goals of providing the USA with sustainable and efficient forest biomass management and production systems, specifically including: (1) improved harvest, collection, handling, and transportation systems for woody biomass; (2) cost and equipment information and options for field processing biomass to improve efficiency and mitigate impacts; and (3) forest biomass management systems and technologies to offset impacts and enhance environmental outcomes. However, as needs evolve, professionals in this field must strive to adapt research, development, and dissemination to address relevant future challenges and strengthen capabilities to solve critical problems in the forest sector.     

Fostering sustainable land restoration through circular economy‐governed transitions

Soil and land are critical common pool resources offering a multitude of ecosystem services (ES) and presently affected by degradation and unplanned exploitation. The present article therefore attempts to elucidate the importance of circular economy in boosting land restoration and realization of several sustainable development goals through efficient waste recycling and clean energy production from degraded lands combined with policy restructuring for aligning circularity with restoration. Integrative policy frameworks targeting a “sustainable restoration economy” can help improve the cost feasibility of restoration projects through circularization of resource value chains besides enhancing social welfare and ecological vitality.     

Potential products from the highly diverse and endemic macroalgae of Southern Australia and pathways for their sustainable production

Macroalgae provide a substantial and renewable resource that can be sustainably utilized for economic and social benefit. A US$7 billion global industry already exists for macroalgae, but the huge majority of this is based on the production of species belonging to approximately six genera, within eight countries, for the manufacture of foods, industrial biomaterials and agricultural products. However, seaweed-derived functional products spanning numerous chemical classes have been identified with valuable therapeutic and industrial applications. This review focuses on the breadth of valuable bioproducts that could be produced from the seaweeds of Southern Australia—a hotspot for seaweed diversity, and the pathways available for their sustainable commercial production. This region contains among the highest level of recorded macroalgal diversity and endemism in the world, with approximately 1,200 described species, of which 62 % are considered endemic. Whilst a number of these species have been shown to be rich sources of higher-value functional products, and most of them still await exploration in this field, the seaweed industry of Southern Australia is largely limited to the harvest of beach-cast biomass for the manufacture of lower-value commodities such as fertilizer and animal feed. There is potential for the development of a substantial industry based on human functional products from seaweeds in Southern Australia. However, a number of challenges and knowledge gaps—including environmental, technological, agronomic, political, and cultural factors—are identified in this review, which must be addressed before sustainable expansion can be achieved. Furthermore, numerous strategic approaches and areas of suggested foci are underscored for research bodies and industry alike. Particular emphasis is given to the need for comprehensive surveying and bioprospecting of the resource; a focus on advanced downstream processing capabilities for improving production efficiency and enhancing product value; the use of biorefinery approaches to improve utilisation efficiency; and pursuing means of improving the sustainability of supply chains.     

两种生境中薇甘菊种群的生物量生殖分配

于2004年薇甘菊（Mikania micrantha）生殖阶段的现蕾期至种子成熟期,从种群和构件水平上研究了两种生境（林窗和开阔地）中薇甘菊种群的生物量生殖分配。结果表明,在生殖生长过程中,两种生境中的种群用于营养生长的生物量分配均占有绝对优势,而生殖生长的波动相对较大。花序的生物量分配（RA）总体上均呈现由低到高的变化趋势。在不同时期,林窗薇甘菊种群的营养枝生物量分配均小于开阔地,而除了种子形成期和种子成熟期以外的其它各个时期,林窗中生殖枝的生物量分配均大于开阔地,林窗中花序的生物量分配均显著大于开阔地。表明薇甘菊能有效权衡其在不同生境中的繁殖策略,开阔地中的薇甘菊种群的繁殖策略倾向于克隆繁殖,而林窗生境中薇甘菊种群则相对更倾向于有性生殖。     

美国生物质资源研究规划与举措分析及启示

发展生物质资源研究对于国家的可持续发展具有重要的战略意义。近年来,美国相继制订若干研究计划或发展路线图,并采取有效举措,持续推动生物质资源的研究、开发和利用。通过分析美国在生物质资源研究领域的重要举措,特别是分析其相关重要规划的具体内容,总结生物质资源研究面临的重要问题和研究热点,对发展我国生物质资源研究提出一些思考建议。     

Survival of three cool-temperate tree species in shade with lime and NPK applications

Knowledge of the site specificity of plastic reactions and shade tolerance of tree species within the complexity of natural forests is limited but critical to understanding forest regeneration. Paper birch (Betula papyrifera), yellow birch (B. alleghaniensis), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) were planted in a randomized block design under natural deciduous canopy and within small canopy gaps with a single application of lime and NPK at time of planting in 2003. Saplings were excavated in 2004 and 2008 for analysis of biomass allocation and testing of foliar N. In 2008, mean survival rate differed significantly among species at 0.14 for paper birch, 0.57 for yellow birch, and 0.76 for eastern hemlock, respectively. Yellow birch emerged as a species of intermediate shade tolerance associated with a sharp decline in shoot development after two growing seasons, high leaf allocation of biomass, and foliar plasticity. Foliation and physiological adaptation of leaves appeared N-limited in yellow birch. Biomass allocation analysis revealed strong allometric growth in yellow birch and eastern hemlock across experimental treatments imposed. Increased soil reaction from pH 4.7 to 6.3 following lime applications had no discernable effect on the juvenile growth and survival of the three species during six growing seasons. The experiment underlined the need for experimental testing of species under natural forest canopy. Cyclical cutting of forests with moderate canopy opening is recommended for sustainable management of yellow birch and eastern hemlock.     

Sustainable mobility indicators for Indian cities: Selection methodology and application

Various indicators of sustainable mobility have been developed. It is difficult to select the most relevant indicators that are useful in a specific context, and that are measurable and achievable at the same time. Indicator selection frameworks – criteria based; causal chains and causal networks have been proposed and used in the past. All three frameworks have certain limitations and strengths.In this study we have proposed a systematic approach of selecting sustainable mobility indicators for Indian cities by combining – criteria based, causal chain and causal network frameworks. The methodology involves both subjective judgments for evaluation of indicators against a set of criteria and objectivity during development and assessment of causal network. The method results in identifying 20 relevant factors for which 32 indicators are shortlisted. Further work is required to develop measurable indicators related to accessibility to the disadvantaged, speed limit restriction and street lighting. These have not been discussed in detail in the existing literature. The 20 factors are classified as root nodes, central and end-of-the-chain nodes that helps in identifying levers of attaining sustainable mobility in Indian cities.The developed causal network is evaluated for its ability to address all sectors associated with sustainable mobility. The causal network has low density and centralization index and therefore accounts for multiple factors. The shortlisted indicators are proposed for preparing low carbon mobility plan (LCMP) for three medium size Indian cities. The indicators are checked for data availability and ease of measurability based on the data collected for preparing the three LCMPs. The analysis shows that the data are available from secondary sources like census to measure root node indicators, whereas central indicators require conducting primary surveys and specific models are required to measure end-of-the-chain indicators.Based on the position of indicators within causal network, it is interpreted that pricing policy, urban form and infrastructure are the levers of sustainable mobility. The indicators of energy consumption, emissions and accessibility are the sustainable mobility targets that we want to achieve.     

Supply chain surplus: comparing conventional and sustainable supply chains

In this paper, we first define sustainable supply chain, and its value, as a paradigm which pursues the maximization of supply chain profitability while taking its environmental and societal responsibilities. Secondly, we compare the supply chain surplus between the conventional and sustainable supply chains by means of adopting the basic economic analysis based on the concept of externality and social surplus in welfare economics. Through the proposed analysis, we show the possibility of sustainable supply chains which can provide more supply chain surplus to the companies. Finally, some limitations of this paper and future research directions are also presented.