The European Union and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive: Continuing the Development of European Ocean Use Management

The European Union has been engaged in an effort to develop a marine strategy to protect the marine environment and a more encompassing integrated maritime policy that would provide a comprehensive system for the management of the uses of the marine areas of Europe. An earlier article by the author described the beginnings of this policy development; this article examines the subsequent 2008 Directive of the European Parliament and the Council, which establishes a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive provides a plan of action with designated responsibilities and obligations and a schedule that is to be adhered to by member states and the European Commission. It represents a significant step in the European endeavor to advance ocean use management and sets the stage for future development of European marine policy.     

European policy review: Biodiversity research to support European policy

Biodiversity research is essential to underpin the development, implementation and evaluation of policy that impacts on or protects biodiversity. An example is presented on how European terrestrial biodiversity research is being integrated to strengthen policy input. ALTER-Net is a Long-Term Biodiversity, Ecosystem and Awareness Research Network funded by the 6th European Union Framework Programme for Research and Development.     

Quantitative criteria for choosing targets and indicators for sustainable use of ecosystems

Wide-ranging, indicator-based assessments of large, complex ecosystems are playing an increasing role in guiding environmental policy and management. An example is the EU’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which requires Member States to take measures to reach “good environmental status” (GES) in European marine waters. However, formulation of indicator targets consistent with the Directive’s high-level policy goal of sustainable use has proven challenging. We develop a specific, quantitative interpretation of the concepts of GES and sustainable use in terms of indicators and associated targets, by sharply distinguishing between current uses to satisfy current societal needs and preferences, and unknown future uses. We argue that consistent targets to safeguard future uses derive from a requirement that any environmental state indicator should recover within a defined time (e.g. 30 years) to its pressure-free range of variation when all pressures are hypothetically removed. Within these constraints, specific targets for current uses should be set. Routes to implementation of this proposal for indicators of fish-community size structure, population size of selected species, eutrophication, impacts of non-indigenous species, and genetic diversity are discussed. Important policy implications are that (a) indicator target ranges, which may be wider than natural ranges, systematically and rationally derive from our proposal; (b) because relevant state indicators tend to respond slowly, corresponding pressures should also be monitored and assessed; (c) support of current uses and safeguarding of future uses are distinct management goals, they require different types of targets, decision processes, and management philosophies.     

Assessment metrics for littoral seagrass under the European Water Framework Directive; outcomes of UK intercalibration with the Netherlands

Under the Water Framework Directive (WFD) taxonomic composition, presence of disturbance sensitive species, abundance and cover are stated attributes for monitoring the status of marine angiosperms; a biological quality element required for assessment of environmental condition. Member States (MS) are required to devise metrics for assessing these attributes to establish ecological status of water bodies. Furthermore the Directive requires intercalibration of metrics and data between MSs. Seagrass are the only truly marine angiosperms. The proposed suites of UK and Dutch metrics for assessing the specified seagrass attributes are described and comparisons made. UK and Dutch metrics are intercalibrated through testing against each nationality’s seagrass data. Strong agreement is established in the outcomes of the two suites of tools; >83%. Differences in outcomes are usually due to lack of availability of raw data. Importantly, where outcomes differ they still fall on the same side of the Good/Moderate boundary. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users Handling editor: K. Martens An erratum to this article is available at .     

A benchmarking and assessment framework to operationalise ecological indicators based on time series analysis

The call for ecosystem considerations in marine management has instigated the use of ecosystem indicators. Many ecosystem indicators have been suggested under new policy frameworks such as the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive or the Common Fisheries Policy. But many of these indicators are still under development and cannot be considered as yet operational for environmental assessments. A common reason for this lack of operationability is the absence of valid assessment benchmarks. This study introduces a two-stage approach for the benchmarking and assessment of time series (TSBA) against a priori chosen rationale of improvement or maintenance of current conditions. TSBA uses breakpoint- and trend-analysis to obtain long-term benchmarks and assess short term progress. Depending on the outcome of both analyses the action requirements for management can be determined. The method is exemplified on a case study on the size-structure of large North Sea gadoid stocks, which are considered as being sensitive to the impacts of fishing. Three out of six stocks reached their assessment benchmarks, while the three other stocks failed. TSBA is generic and can be applied to any indicator used within any marine policy assessment framework. A strength–weaknesses–opportunity–threat analysis (SWOT) investigated the advantages and disadvantages of TSBA in the context of the currently high political demand of operational ecosystem indicators. Contrary to benchmarks derived from ecological concepts or pressure-state relationship TSBA benchmarks are not specifically linked to limits of resilience or sustainability. However, TSBA may be especially useful in situations where assessment benchmarks from other sources will not be readily available or are associated with high uncertainty.     

我国生态产品价值实现政策的配置与优化——基于政策文本分析

为促进城乡区域协调发展，推动地区生态产业化和产业生态化，完善生态产品价值实现的多元化路径和政策制度体系，对当前中央和地方政府发布的生态产品价值实现相关政策文本展开分析，并提出优化建议，为后续相关政策配置与优化提供参考。通过选取2019年-2022年8月间36份生态产品价值实现政策文本作为研究对象，构建政策工具-政策目标二维分析框架，借助质性分析工具Nvivo12对其进行量化分析和综合评价。研究发现，政策文件以通知和实施方案为主；政策工具覆盖较为全面，但内部存在分配不太协调的现象。政策目标维度中生态环境优美化受关注度较高，而生态产业高效化较少。工具-目标配置上，存在多对多的关系，不同政策目标对应的政策工具也存在差异。为进一步优化生态产品价值实现的政策供给，从政策工具上应以战略、具体规划为重点，平衡政策工具内部结构比例；从政策目标上应强调从金融和技术方面助推生态产品价值实现的同时，也需要加强法规管制力度，推出更专业化和可操作性的具体举措，因地制宜凸显区域化特色和差异，真正将生态产品价值实现政策落到实处，确保成果看得见摸得着。     

The Seascape of Demersal Fish Nursery Areas in the North Mediterranean Sea,a First Step Towards the Implementation of Spatial Planning for Trawl Fisheries

The identification of nursery grounds and other essential fish habitats of exploited stocks is a key requirement for the development of spatial conservation planning aimed at reducing the adverse impact of fishing on the exploited populations and ecosystems. The reduction in juvenile mortality is particularly relevant in the Mediterranean and is considered as one of the main prerequisites for the future sustainability of trawl fisheries. The distribution of nursery areas of 11 important commercial species of demersal fish and shellfish was analysed in the European Union Mediterranean waters using time series of bottom trawl survey data with the aim of identifying the most persistent recruitment areas. A high interspecific spatial overlap between nursery areas was mainly found along the shelf break of many different sectors of the Northern Mediterranean indicating a high potential for the implementation of conservation measures. Overlap of the nursery grounds with existing spatial fisheries management measures and trawl fisheries restricted areas was also investigated. Spatial analyses revealed considerable variation depending on species and associated habitat/depth preferences with increased protection seen in coastal nurseries and minimal protection seen for deeper nurseries (e.g. Parapenaeus longirostris 6%). This is partly attributed to existing environmental policy instruments (e.g. Habitats Directive and Mediterranean Regulation EC 1967/2006) aiming at minimising impacts on coastal priority habitats such as seagrass, coralligenous and maerl beds. The new knowledge on the distribution and persistence of demersal nurseries provided in this study can support the application of spatial conservation measures, such as the designation of no-take Marine Protected Areas in EU Mediterranean waters and their inclusion in a conservation network. The establishment of no-take zones will be consistent with the objectives of the Common Fisheries Policy applying the ecosystem approach to fisheries management and with the requirements of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive to maintain or achieve seafloor integrity and good environmental status.     

The impact of European Directives on estuarine and coastal science and management

Many recent developments in European marine and estuarine science have been against the demands of European Union legislation. The implementation of certain statutes, the role of scientists and the nature of the data required are discussed using examples from the UK, the Netherlands and Portugal. This includes the implementation of the EU Directives on Urban Waste-water Treatment, the control of Nitrates, the designation of Species and Habitats, the control of Dangerous Substances, the statutory requirement for Environmental Impact Assessments and the recently proposed Water Framework Directive. For these, the integration of physical, chemical and biological monitoring and investigation is discussed in relation to the science dictated by the legislative and administrative requirements. Each of these Directives requires the development of generic guidelines and protocols for implementation and the use of national enabling legislation. This indicates that, in several cases, the science should concentrate on monitoring and assessment in a well-structured and quality-controlled manner. The paper concludes by summarising developments based on similarities in the implementation of present and proposed Directives across Europe.     

Structuring policy problems for plastics,the environment and human health: reflections from the UK

How can we strengthen the science–policy interface for plastics, the environment and human health? In a complex policy area with multiple stakeholders, it is important to clarify the nature of the particular plastics-related issue before trying to understand how to reconcile the supply and demand for evidence in policy. This article proposes a simple problem typology to assess the fundamental characteristics of a policy issue and thus identify appropriate processes for science–policy interactions. This is illustrated with two case studies from one UK Government Department, showing how policy and science meet over the environmental problems of plastics waste in the marine environment and on land. A problem-structuring methodology helps us understand why some policy issues can be addressed through relatively linear flows of science from experts to policymakers but why others demand a more reflexive approach to brokering the knowledge between science and policy. Suggestions are given at the end of the article for practical actions that can be taken on both sides.     

A value chain approach to improve biomass policy formation

Biomass value chains for energy, fuels and bio‐based products involve complex, cross sector interactions between their upstream and downstream stages. Overarching policymaking to date has included the use of biomass to deliver sector specific aims (e.g. climate change, energy, etc.) however, this is mostly planned without adjusting support across the most challenging stages of biomass value chains and exploiting specific advantages related to their geographic settings (e.g. domestic feedstocks, local markets, etc.). Policies to date have, therefore, resulted in fragmented, suboptimal biomass use and debates for sustainability and resource efficiency. This opinion paper arose from the project Strategic Initiative for Resource Efficient Biomass Policies Funded by the EU Commission. It discusses the development of a dedicated Biomass Policy Framework which applies the principles of value chain analysis in policy design to enable the market uptake of sustainable, domestic, resource efficient biomass solutions. Firstly, it explains how to provide context by identifying value chains which can offer competitive advantages for biomass mobilization, market infrastructures, rural and economic development within their geographic setting. Then the work builds on the context and prioritized value chains and further rationalizes policy needs and aims within individual value chain stages. This is done by identifying policy‐related challenges and gaps that constrain sustainable and resource efficient deployment of the selected value chains. Also, it suggests policy interventions that will overcome challenges, resolve gaps and as a result mobilize local biomass and improve market uptake. Finally, it discusses the contrasting paradigms for biomass policy formation within single sector target setting and the value chain approach of the Biomass Policy Framework and uses the case of low carbon biomass heat to illustrate the strengths of the suggested approach. The paper concludes with remarks for the concept of biomass value chain analysis in policy.     

基于AHP-模糊综合评价法的新安江流域生态补偿政策绩效评估

为了改善流域生态环境，我国推行了流域生态补偿试点，逐渐形成具有我国特色的流域生态补偿模式和机制，目前全国已有十余个省份实行了流域生态补偿政策。生态补偿政策的推行对流域生态环境改善发挥了极其重要的作用，同时也对流域内的社会、经济、健康等方面带来不同程度的影响。如何科学、合理的界定和评价补偿政策带来的社会、经济以及生态环境影响及影响的程度对政策的实施和改善意义重大，这也是流域生态补偿政策得以继续推行的重要条件。在总结和梳理政策效果评价方法的基础上，结合流域生态补偿政策的特点，建立了基于层次分析（AHP）-模糊综合评价法的政策评价模型以及生态补偿政策绩效评估指标体系，并以我国首个跨省流域生态补偿机制试点-新安江流域为研究对象，评估了新安江流域生态补偿政策在第一个试点阶段（2012-2014年）期间的绩效。结果表明：新安江流域生态补偿政策实施效果整体较好，但对区域经济和社会发展的促进作用不显著，并且需要从政策目标的确定、政策体系的健全、政策设计与执行等方面进行完善。建议推动建立流域生态补偿动态评估机制，研究制定相关技术指南；重视强化政策的配套机制能力建设，完善区域联动长效机制和信息共享；促进补偿政策目标从生态资源到生态资本转化，改善和保障河流生态基流；拓宽流域补偿资金来源渠道，鼓励多元主体进入环保市场。在谋求生态效益最大化的前提下，进一步统筹规划经济和社会效益，更好地运用经济杠杆进行流域治理和生态保护，实现经济、社会、生态的共赢。     

Predicting and mapping the risk of introduction of marine non-indigenous species into Great Britain and Ireland

Non-indigenous species (NIS) can have adverse environmental, economic and social impacts. Their management is now incorporated into key legislation, including the European Union (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the EU Regulation on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species. Prevention of NIS introductions and the early detection of NIS following their introduction are recognised as the most effective approaches for reducing the potential impacts of NIS. This is true for most aquatic environments but especially so for the marine environment, where control and/or eradication are often not achievable. By assessing introduction vector activity, it is possible to identify coastal areas and specific locations where marine NIS may be more likely to be introduced. This study uses data relating to the activity of key introduction vectors; shipping, recreational boating and live animal aquaculture import, to estimate the relative risk of introduction of NIS around coastal regions of Great Britain and Ireland. Spatial analysis was used to create “heat” maps indicating coastal areas of increased relative risk of introduction of NIS by these vectors. The results of the present study will be crucial for the implementation of targeted vector management plans, supporting preventive strategies, and will facilitate a risk analyses of NIS threats to inform monitoring and surveillance programmes.     

The European Union and Ocean Use Management: The Marine Strategy and the Maritime Policy

Problems resulting from contemporary patterns of ocean use and threats to the viability of the marine environment have led to reconsideration of ocean use governance in a number of states, including the United States, Australia, and Canada. For its part, the European Union has been working on the development of a Marine Strategy to safeguard the environment and a more encompassing Maritime Policy into which the Marine Strategy would be folded. The desired Maritime Policy would reflect a holistic perspective of ocean space, embody an ecosystem-based approach to ocean use management, and provide a broad framework for ocean/coastal management. As has been seen elsewhere, developing such a governance system is difficult both in terms of conceptualization and, subsequently, in operationalization. The June 2006 European Commission Green Paper on Maritime Policy sets the stage for a year of consultations designed to develop an effective governance system for ocean management. Institutional and policy changes will be needed and it will be necessary to balance the objectives of economic growth and protection of environmental sustainability. This article examines current developments in efforts to devise a coherent and integrated European Union approach to ocean management.     

Evidence-informed policy formulation and implementation: a comparative case study of two national policies for improving health and social care in Sweden

Background

Evidence has come to play a central role in health policymaking. However, policymakers tend to use other types of information besides research evidence. Most prior studies on evidence-informed policy have focused on the policy formulation phase without a systematic analysis of its implementation. It has been suggested that in order to fully understand the policy process, the analysis should include both policy formulation and implementation. The purpose of the study was to explore and compare two policies aiming to improve health and social care in Sweden and to empirically test a new conceptual model for evidence-informed policy formulation and implementation.

Methods

Two concurrent national policies were studied during the entire policy process using a longitudinal, comparative case study approach. Data was collected through interviews, observations, and documents. A Conceptual Model for Evidence-Informed Policy Formulation and Implementation was developed based on prior frameworks for evidence-informed policymaking and policy dissemination and implementation. The conceptual model was used to organize and analyze the data.

Results

The policies differed regarding the use of evidence in the policy formulation and the extent to which the policy formulation and implementation phases overlapped. Similarities between the cases were an emphasis on capacity assessment, modified activities based on the assessment, and a highly active implementation approach relying on networks of stakeholders. The Conceptual Model for Evidence-Informed Policy Formulation and Implementation was empirically useful to organize the data.

Conclusions

The policy actors’ roles and functions were found to have a great influence on the choices of strategies and collaborators in all policy phases. The Conceptual Model for Evidence-Informed Policy Formulation and Implementation was found to be useful. However, it provided insufficient guidance for analyzing actors involved in the policy process, capacity-building strategies, and overlapping policy phases. A revised version of the model that includes these aspects is suggested.

     

ecopa: a powerful concept in the way forward for alternative methods

ecopa, the European Consensus-Platform on Alternatives, is an international not-for-profit organisation, based in Belgium and complying with Belgium Law. It is the only quadripartite organisation that promotes the Three Rs at the European level. Ecopa brings together national consensus platforms on alternative methods. Consensus means that all parties concerned are represented, including animal welfare, industry, academia and government. Ecopa currently includes the National Platforms of 14 EU Member State (or future Member State; eight full members, namely, Austria, Belgium, Finland, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland and the UK, and six associate members, being the Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, Norway, Poland and Sweden). Ecopa also has three working groups, concerned with: a) the 6th Framework Programme of the EC for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration Activities; b) the EC White Paper Strategy for a Future EU Chemicals Policy; and c) the formation of educational programmes on alternative methods within the EU. Ecopa is thus uniquely placed and has huge expertise to offer to the debate around political topics, including the White Paper, the 6th Framework Programme, and the 7th Amendment of the EU Cosmetics Directive. Ecopa should be considered a key stakeholder by the European Commission and Parliament, and it is essential that the views of ecopa are fully incorporated into future legislation. Recently, the ecopa working groups made a strong common statement on the Chemicals Policy White Paper and made a number of recommendations to the Commission based on scientific, practical and realistic grounds. These are to be found on the ecopa Web site (http://www.ecopa.tsx.org/).     

Food-web indicators accounting for species interactions respond to multiple pressures

Food-web indicators for marine management are required to describe the functioning and structure of marine food-webs. In Europe, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), intended to lead to a ‘good environmental status’ of the marine waters, requires indicators of the status of the marine environment that also respond to manageable anthropogenic pressures. Identifying such relationships to pressures is particularly challenging for food-web indicators, as they need to be disentangled from linkages between indicators of different functional groups caused by species interactions. Still, such linkages have not been handled in the indicator development. Here we used multivariate autoregressive time series models to identify how fish indicators in an exploited food-web relate to fishing, climate and eutrophication, while accounting for the linkages between indicators caused by species interactions. We assembled 31-year long time series of indicators of key functional groups of fish in the Central Baltic Sea pelagic food-web, which is characterized by strong trophic links between cod (Gadus morhua) and its main fish prey sprat (Sprattus sprattus) and herring (Clupea harengus). These food-web indicators were either abundance-based indicators of key piscivores (cod) and zooplanktivores (sprat and herring) or size-based indicators of the corresponding trophic groups (biomass of large predatory fish (cod ≥ 38 cm) and biomass of small prey fish (sprat and herring <10 cm)). Comparative analyses of models with and without linkages among indicators showed that for both types of indicators, linkages corresponding to predator-prey feedbacks and intra-specific density-dependence were essential to explain temporal variation in the indicators. Thus, no indicator-pressure relationships could be found that explained the indicators’ variation unless such linkages were accounted for. When accounting for these, we found that the indicators overall respond to multiple pressures acting simultaneously rather than to single pressures, as no pressure alone could explain how the indicators developed over time. The manageable pressures fishing and eutrophication, as well as the prevailing hydrological conditions influenced by climate, were all needed to reproduce the inter-annual changes in these food-web indicators combined, although individual relationships differed between the indicators. We conclude that our innovative indicator-testing framework can therefore be used to identify responses of food-web indicators to manageable pressures while accounting for the biotic interactions in food-webs linking such indicators.     

Ability of invertebrate indices to assess ecological condition on intertidal rocky shores

The implementation of directives such as the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) has promoted the development of several tools and methods for assessing the ecological health of marine ecosystems. Within the scope of the WFD and in terms of rocky shores, several multimetric tools were developed based on the macroalgae biological quality element (BQE), in addition to those based on macroinvertebrates.The WFD requires member states to assess each BQE separately. The present work aimed to test the ability of ecological indices to distinguish sites within anthropogenic disturbance gradients caused by organic enrichment, using macroinvertebrate communities on intertidal rocky shores. Owing to the lack of more specific indices (for rocky shore), indices based on abundance, diversity and/or taxonomic composition were selected from several widely used indices in ecological studies and/or developed for soft-bottom macroinvertebrate communities.Present findings reveal several indices based on diversity and/or taxonomic composition able to distinguish sites within the disturbance gradients, showing increasing quality from the site nearest the source of organic enrichment to that farthest from it, especially indices calculated using biomass data, and in the summer season. Such results open good perspectives for the use of intertidal macroinvertebrate communities from rocky shores, and also help add the perspective of this biological quality element in the ecological quality assessment of coastal waters.     

A new procedure for comparing class boundaries of biological assessment methods: A case study from the Danube Basin

For the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive class boundaries of biological assessment methods need to be intercalibrated. The most commonly applied intercalibration approach of national river assessment methods in Europe requires data on near-natural reference sites; however, these data are generally scarce. We developed an alternative approach based on sites impacted by similar levels of disturbance and tested it with national assessment methods based on diatoms and benthic invertebrates from countries in the Danube River Basin. Using environmental variables we screened for sampling sites of at least good environmental status. Relations between different assessment methods were established by common metrics, and we standardized these metrics by “biological benchmarks” obtained from the screened datasets. This approach allows for intercalibration even if near-natural reference sites are absent; relatively few and easily available data are required.     

Marine water environmental DNA metabarcoding provides a comprehensive fish diversity assessment and reveals spatial patterns in a large oceanic area

Current methods for monitoring marine fish (including bony fishes and elasmobranchs) diversity mostly rely on trawling surveys, which are invasive, costly, and time‐consuming. Moreover, these methods are selective, targeting a subset of species at the time, and can be inaccessible to certain areas. Here, we used environmental DNA (eDNA), the DNA present in the water column as part of shed cells, tissues, or mucus, to provide comprehensive information about fish diversity in a large marine area. Further, eDNA results were compared to the fish diversity obtained in pelagic trawls. A total of 44 5 L‐water samples were collected onboard a wide‐scale oceanographic survey covering about 120,000 square kilometers in Northeast Atlantic Ocean. A short region of the 12S rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced through metabarcoding generating almost 3.5 million quality‐filtered reads. Trawl and eDNA samples resulted in the same most abundant species (European anchovy, European pilchard, Atlantic mackerel, and blue whiting), but eDNA metabarcoding resulted in more detected bony fish and elasmobranch species (116) than trawling (16). Although an overall correlation between fishes biomass and number of reads was observed, some species deviated from the common trend, which could be explained by inherent biases of each of the methods. Species distribution patterns inferred from eDNA metabarcoding data coincided with current ecological knowledge of the species, suggesting that eDNA has the potential to draw sound ecological conclusions that can contribute to fish surveillance programs. Our results support eDNA metabarcoding for broad‐scale marine fish diversity monitoring in the context of Directives such as the Common Fisheries Policy or the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.