有氧运动改善AD模型APP/PS1双转基因小鼠中枢神经元线粒体融合分裂动态平衡

线粒体融合分裂平衡是线粒体动力学的需要。本研究观察12周规律有氧运动对APP/PS1双转基因小鼠中枢神经元线粒体融合分裂动态平衡的影响。本研究采用3月龄雄性APP/PS1小鼠（AD模型）随机分为AD安静组（AS）、AD运动组（AE）,同月龄雄性C57BL/6J小鼠做正常对照组（CS）。AE组进行12周规律跑台运动,5 d/周,60 min/d。前10 min运动速度12 m/min,后50 min运动速度15 m/min,跑台坡度为0°。八臂迷宫实验检测小鼠工作记忆错误频率和参考记忆错误频率;Western印迹检测小鼠皮层、海马组织中线粒体分裂蛋白Drp1和Fis1的含量,以及Drp1的活性（p-Drp1-Ser616）、线粒体融合蛋白Mfn1、Mfn2、Opa1的表达水平;透射电镜观察皮层、海马线粒体形态结构、健康线粒体比率及线粒体平均直径。本研究证实AS组较CS组工作记忆错误频率显著提高（P<0.05）,12周有氧运动显著降低工作记忆错误频率（P<0.05）。AS组小鼠皮层Fis1蛋白和海马脑区Drp1、Fis1蛋白表达水平及皮层、海马脑区Drp1蛋白的活性增加（P<0.05）。而皮层Mfn1和海马Mfn1、Mfn2蛋白表达水平显著降低（P<0.05）。12周有氧运动显著减低Fis1、Drp1蛋白表达及Drp1蛋白的活性,提高Mfn1、Mfn2蛋白表达水平（P<0.05）。AS组小鼠皮层、海马线粒体多呈现球形,部分线粒体膜结构消失,线粒体嵴结构紊乱。且AS组较CS组小鼠健康线粒体比率降低、直径缩短。12周规律有氧运动可明显改善线粒体形态和结构,提高健康线粒体比率及直径。本研究提示,12周规律有氧运动可有效抑制皮层、海马脑区线粒体分裂蛋白Drp1和 Fis1的表达,降低Drp1的活性（p-Drp1-Ser616）,上调线粒体融合蛋白Mfn1、Mfn2的蛋白表达水平,改善线粒体形态和结构以促进线粒体质量控制,是有氧运动改善AD模型空间学习记忆能力的分子机制之一。     

RNSP抑制APP/PS1小鼠海马白质降解改善学习记忆能力

本研究前期证实,七十味珍珠丸(ratanasampil, RNSP)对淀粉样前体蛋白/早老素1(Amyloid precursor protein/Presenilin1, APP/PS1)双转基因小鼠学习记忆能力有积极的改善效果。脑白质损伤是阿尔茨海默症(Alzheimer's disease, AD)的一个重要病理特征,七十味珍珠丸(ratanasampil, RNSP)对APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆的改善作用是否与其对海马白质的改善有关,目前尚不清楚。为探讨RNSP对APP/PS1小鼠海马白质结构的影响,本研究采用3月龄C57BL/6品系的APP/PS1小鼠24只和同窝野生小鼠12只为实验对象,将小鼠分为野生对照组(WTC组)、APP/PS1对照组(ADC组)和APP/PS1 RNSP干预组(ADR组),各组12只。3个月灌胃干预后,采用Morris水迷宫、弥散张量成像(Magnetic Resonance Imaging-diffusion tensor imaging,MRI-DTI)、透射电镜、免疫组织荧光、Western印迹等方法对小鼠学习记忆及脑白质相关指标进行检测。结果显示,6月龄APP/PS1小鼠潜伏期显著延长(P0.05),穿越平台次数明显减少(P0.05),海马白质各向异性分数(fractional anisotropy, FA)值降低(P0.05),髓鞘完整性破坏,MBP蛋白表达下调(P0.05),脑白质降解相关基因胞浆磷脂酶A2(cytosolic phospholipases A2, c-PLA2)、琥珀酰辅酶A:3-酮酸辅酶A转移酶(succinyl CoA:3-oxoacid CoA-transferase, SCOT)、单羧酸转运载体(monocarboxylate transporters, MCTs即MCT1、MCT2、MCT4)蛋白质表达上调(P0.05);3个月的RNSP干预可逆转上述指标变化,改善APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力,抑制脑白质降解。结果提示,RNSP改善APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力的机制可能与其对小鼠海马白质的改善有关。     

藏药七十味珍珠丸改善APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力

藏药七十味珍珠丸（ratanasampil,RNSP）可改善大脑氧化应激水平,改善大脑功能,有安神和促进学习记忆的功效,然而RNSP是否可改善阿尔茨海默症（AD）小鼠的学习记忆功能,尚缺乏系统研究。本研究采用APP/PS 1转基因小鼠为研究对象,并随机将其分为实验组和对照组。对实验组进行为期12周的RNSP灌胃给药,对照组进行12周的蒸馏水灌胃,采用Morris水迷宫与开场实验评价小鼠学习记忆能力,比较小鼠体重与相关器官质量,并比较器官质量指数,通过分子生物学检测指标评价小鼠脑内老年斑数量,Aβ生成量及BACE1表达水平。本研究证实,与对照组相比,给药组小鼠定位航行潜伏期明显缩短（22.60±13.26 vs. 46.44±8.41, P<0.01, day 5）,穿越平台次数明显增加（1.29±0.37 vs. 0.54±0.29, P<0.01）,探洞次数明显增加（32.11±9.85 vs. 20.89±8.78, P<0.05）,表明RNSP提高了APP/PS 1小鼠的学习记忆能力和空间探索能力。与对照组相比,给药组小鼠大脑重量及脑质量指数均增高（0.4135±0.0102 vs. 0.3833±0.0254, P<0.05;2.04±0.08 vs. 1.84±0.15, P<0.05）,脑内老年斑数量减少（18.70±7.88 vs. 38.83±6.15, P<0.05）,Aβ1- 42水平及BACE1表达均显著降低（0.19±0.08 vs. 0.41±0.12, P<0.05; 0.136±0.04 vs. 0.206±0.02, P<0.05）,表明RNSP延缓了APP/PS 1小鼠的脑萎缩进程,降低脑内老年斑的形成,下调脑内Aβ1-42水平和BACE1裂解酶的蛋白质表达量。本研究提示,RNSP可改善APP/PS 1小鼠的学习记忆能力,其机制可能和RNSP抑制脑萎缩,降低BACE1蛋白表达以及减少脑内Aβ沉积有关。     

APP/PS1年轻小鼠的早期学习记忆缺陷及血清注射治疗效果分析

目的:明确经典阿尔兹海默症(Alzheimer's Disease,AD)小鼠模型APP/PS1的年轻小鼠是否存在学习记忆障碍,并探讨尾静脉注射同龄小鼠的血清是否可以改善年老AD小鼠的认知能力。方法:根据转基因小鼠的基因型,将同龄小鼠分为wildtype(WT)和APP/PS1两组,首先用物体辨别实验(Novel object recognition,NOR)检测2个月龄小鼠的认知能力(90min retention:WT n=6,APP/PS1 n=8; 24hours retention:WT n=7, APP/PS1=8),同时用Morris水迷宫实验(Morris water maze,MWM)检测2个月龄小鼠的空间学习记忆能力(WT n=6, APP/PS1 n=5);采用内眦取血法从8月龄小鼠中获取全血,高速离心获得血清。将8月龄APP/PS1小鼠分为两组:对照组注射PBS(n=7),实验组注射血清(n=6),每周注射两次,100μL/只/次,连续注射3周。注射结束后,用NOR法检测对照组和实验组小鼠的认知能力。结果:NOR实验结果显示APP/PS1小鼠的辨别指数(Discrimination index(%))显著低于WT小鼠(P0.05);MWM实验结果显示APP/PS1小鼠到达平台的时间明显长于WT小鼠,同时在测试阶段中,APP/PS1小鼠在目的象限的探索时间及穿越次数显著低于WT小鼠(P0.05);治疗实验中,与对照组APP/PS1小鼠的辨别指数相比较,实验组APP/PS1小鼠在注射同龄小鼠的血清后,其物体辨别指数显著升高(P0.05),小鼠脑中的Aβ沉淀明显减少。结论:APP/PS1小鼠在2个月左右就会表现出明显的学习记忆障碍;注射正常同龄鼠的血清可以明显改善APP/PS1小鼠的学习记忆能力同时阻碍Aβ沉淀的形成。     

氟西汀通过增加阿尔茨海默病APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑内乙酰胆碱的含量改善其空间学习能力

目的探讨胆碱能神经系统是否是抗抑郁药氟西汀(Fluoxetine,FLXT)改善阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)患者大脑空间学习记忆能力的作用靶点。方法随机选取18月龄的雄性APP/PS1双转基因AD小鼠20只分为阳性对照组(APP/PSI组)和FLXT组,分别给予为期4周的腹腔注射生理盐水和FLXT,并随机选取18月龄同窝生野生型(wild type,WT)小鼠10只作为阴性对照组(WT组),该组不给于药物干预。运用Morris水迷宫实验对三组小鼠的空间学习记忆能力进行检测,采用免疫组织化学染色和紫外分光光度法对三组小鼠大脑内β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloidβ-protein,Aβ)沉积情况和乙醜胆碱(acetylcholine,Ach)的含量、乙酰胆碱脂酶(acetylcholinesterase,AchE)及胆碱乙酰化酶(choline acetyl transferase,ChAT)活性等进行检测。结果水迷宫实验显示,APP/PS1小鼠逃避潜伏期显著长于WT小鼠,FLXT处理可明显缩短APP/PS1小鼠逃避潜伏期;免疫组织化学染色显示,WT小鼠脑内未见明显Aβ沉积,而APP/PSI小鼠海马内可见大量Aβ沉积,FLXT处理可明显减少APP/PS1小鼠海马内Aβ沉积;对Ach含量、AchE和ChAT活性检测显示,APP/PS1小鼠大脑皮质及海马内的Ach含量、AchE活性及皮质内的CHAT活性均较WT小鼠降低,FLXT处理可明显抑制APP/PS1小鼠大脑皮质及海马内Ach含量、AchE活性的降低,但对ChAT活性没明显的作用。结论胆碱能系统可能是FLXT作用于AD大脑的作用靶点之一,即FLXT可能通过增加AD大脑胆碱能神经系统的神经功能活性,进而增加Ach的含量,从而改善AD大脑的空间学习记忆能力。     

APP/PS1转基因小鼠海马结构UCH-L1的表达及亚甲蓝对其改变的影响

目的探讨亚甲蓝(MB)对APP/PS1转基因小鼠记忆相关蛋白泛素羧基末端水解酶1(carboxyl-terminalhydrolase-L1,UCH-L1)在海马结构的表达及记忆改善的影响。方法 3月龄APP/PS1转基因小鼠及相同品系的野生小鼠分为3组,每组10只:治疗组,APP/PS1小鼠口服亚甲蓝(25mg/kg/d)4个月;模型组,APP/PS1小鼠无药物干预;对照组为正常野生小鼠。待三组小鼠均为7月龄时,跳台实验测试三组小鼠的学习记忆能力;Western blot及免疫荧光技术检测海马结构UCH-L1的含量变化。结果亚甲蓝可以减少小鼠跳台试验错误次数,延长小鼠跳台试验的潜伏期(P<0.01)。亚甲蓝治疗组海马结构的可溶性UCH-L1含量明显增多(P<0.01)。结论亚甲蓝可能是通过上调海马结构可溶性UCH-L1的表达改善APP/PS1小鼠的学习记忆能力。     

线粒体融合蛋白Mfn1/2的结构和功能

线粒体融合素基因（mitofusin gene,Mfn）在哺乳动物中编码两种蛋白质分子,Mfn1和Mfn2,它们在线粒体融合、分裂与细胞凋亡中起重要作用,调控着线粒体形态的动态变化。另外,Mfn1/2还参与线粒体的能量代谢并与相关疾病的发生有着密切关系。     

APP/PS1双转基因小鼠的繁育、鉴定及评价

目的：评价APP/PS1双转基因小鼠基因表达及认知行为能力的变化,为AD的相关研究提供有效的动物模型。方法：采用雄、雌鼠1：1合笼配对的方式,令APP/PS1双转基因小鼠自然交配进行繁育。PCR鉴定APP/PS1双转基因鼠仔鼠的基因型后,选择APP/PS1阳性小鼠作为模型（AD）组,同批APP/PS1阴性为对照（CT）组,每组8只小鼠。以Morris水迷宫实验检测仔鼠的空间学习记忆能力,以HE染色、刚果红染色观察仔鼠脑片组织病理学改变。结果：①APP/PS1双转基因鼠仔鼠基因经PCR扩增,出现约360 bp的目的基因条带,表明成功繁育出转入APP/PS1基因的仔鼠;②Morris水迷宫实验结果显示,与7月龄阴性小鼠（CT组）比较,同月龄的双转基因AD组小鼠的空间学习记忆能力明显降低（P<0.05）;③HE染色结果显示,AD组小鼠海马结构及细胞形态出现明显异常;刚果红染色结果显示,AD组小鼠脑片组织出现β淀粉样蛋白斑块沉积。结论：APP/PS1双转基因小鼠较好地模拟了AD的病理变化及行为学特征,可作为研究AD发病机制及开发AD防治药物的实验工具。     

线粒体融合、分裂与神经变性疾病

线粒体是一种处于高度运动状态的频繁地进行融合与分裂的细胞器.在生理状态下,线粒体的融合与分裂处于一种平衡的状态,这种平衡受线粒体融合蛋白1/2（Mfn1/2）、视神经萎缩蛋白1（OPA1）和动力相关蛋白1（Drp1）的调节. Mfn1/2介导线粒体外膜的融合,而OPA1则参与线粒体内膜的融合,这些蛋白受泛素化和蛋白水解的调控. Drp1参与线粒体的分裂过程,受多种翻译后修饰的调节,如磷酸化、泛素化、SUMO化和S 硝基化.对于神经元来说,线粒体融合分裂的动态平衡对保证神经元末梢长距离运输和能量平均分布是非常重要的.因此,线粒体融合分裂异常可能是许多神经变性疾病的致病因素之一.对线粒体融合而言,Mfn2错义突变将导致遗传性运动感觉神经病2型（CMT2A）;OPA1错义突变将引起显性遗传性视神经萎缩(ADOA),而就线粒体分裂而言,Drp1突变与多系统功能障碍的新生儿致死性相关.     

β片层阻断肽H102对双转基因AD小鼠海马脑区APP代谢酶的影响

目的:探讨β片层阻断肽H102对APP/PS1双转基因小鼠(AD小鼠)海马脑区β淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白(APP)代谢分泌酶以及学习记忆能力的影响。方法:将6月龄大小的30只AD模型小鼠随机分为AD组和H102组,相同月龄、数量和背景的C57BL/6J小鼠作为对照组(n=15)。H102组每日经鼻腔给予H102溶液(5.8 mg/kg)5μl,对照组及AD组每日给予辅料溶液5μl。给药30 d后,使用Morris水迷宫的方法检测各组小鼠的空间记忆能力变化,采用免疫组织化学方法及Western blot技术测定海马脑区α分泌酶(ADAM10和ADAM17)、β分泌酶(BACE1)及γ分泌酶(PS1,APH1a,PEN2)在小鼠海马中的表达。结果:与对照组比较,AD组小鼠海马脑区BACE1、PS1、PEN-2、APH1-a蛋白表达显著升高,ADAM10、ADAM17蛋白表达显著降低(P0.05);与模型组相比,H102能够明显提高AD小鼠的空间学习记忆能力,明显降低海马脑区BACE1、PS1、PEN-2、APH1-a蛋白的表达,明显提高ADAM10、ADAM17蛋白的表达(P0.05)。结论:β片层阻断肽H102能够减少海马脑区Aβ的生成,提高海马脑区α分泌酶的活性,降低β和γ分泌酶的活性,改善AD小鼠的学习记忆能力。     

Response of mitochondrial fusion and fission protein gene expression to exercise in rat skeletal muscle

The purpose of this study was to investigate the changes in the gene expression of Mitofusion (Mfn) 1 and 2 and Fission 1 (Fis1) and mitochondrial energy metabolism in response to altered energy demand during prolonged exercise in rat skeletal muscle. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were subjected to an acute bout of treadmill running at various durations and killed immediately or during recovery. Mfn1/2 and Fis1 mRNA and protein contents, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, state 3 and state 4 respiration rates, trans-innermembrane potential and ATP synthase activity were measured in isolated muscle mitochondria. We found that (1) Mfn1/2 mRNA contents were progressively decreased during 150 min of exercise, along with decreased Mfn 1 protein levels. Fis1 mRNA and protein contents showed significant increases after 120–150 min of exercise. These changes persisted through the recovery period up to 24 h. (2) Mitochondrial ROS generation and state 4 respiration showed progressive increases up to 120 min, but dropped at 150 min of exercise. (3) State 3 respiration rate and respiratory control index were unchanged initially but decreased at 150 and 120 min of exercise, respectively, whereas ATP synthase activity was elevated at 45 min and returned to resting level thereafter. Our data suggested that the gene expression of mitochondrial fusion and fission proteins in skeletal muscle can respond rapidly to increased metabolic demand during prolonged exercise, which could significantly affect the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation.     

Mitofusins Mfn1 and Mfn2 coordinately regulate mitochondrial fusion and are essential for embryonic development

Mitochondrial morphology is determined by a dynamic equilibrium between organelle fusion and fission, but the significance of these processes in vertebrates is unknown. The mitofusins, Mfn1 and Mfn2, have been shown to affect mitochondrial morphology when overexpressed. We find that mice deficient in either Mfn1 or Mfn2 die in midgestation. However, whereas Mfn2 mutant embryos have a specific and severe disruption of the placental trophoblast giant cell layer, Mfn1-deficient giant cells are normal. Embryonic fibroblasts lacking Mfn1 or Mfn2 display distinct types of fragmented mitochondria, a phenotype we determine to be due to a severe reduction in mitochondrial fusion. Moreover, we find that Mfn1 and Mfn2 form homotypic and heterotypic complexes and show, by rescue of mutant cells, that the homotypic complexes are functional for fusion. We conclude that Mfn1 and Mfn2 have both redundant and distinct functions and act in three separate molecular complexes to promote mitochondrial fusion. Strikingly, a subset of mitochondria in mutant cells lose membrane potential. Therefore, mitochondrial fusion is essential for embryonic development, and by enabling cooperation between mitochondria, has protective effects on the mitochondrial population.     

Control of mitochondrial morphology through differential interactions of mitochondrial fusion and fission proteins

Mitochondria in mammals are organized into tubular networks that undergo frequent shape change. Mitochondrial fission and fusion are the main components mediating the mitochondrial shape change. Perturbation of the fission/fusion balance is associated with many disease conditions. However, underlying mechanisms of the fission/fusion balance are not well understood. Mitochondrial fission in mammals requires the dynamin-like protein DLP1/Drp1 that is recruited to the mitochondrial surface, possibly through the membrane-anchored protein Fis1 or Mff. Additional dynamin-related GTPases, mitofusin (Mfn) and OPA1, are associated with the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes, respectively, and mediate fusion of the respective membranes. In this study, we found that two heptad-repeat regions (HR1 and HR2) of Mfn2 interact with each other, and that Mfn2 also interacts with the fission protein DLP1. The association of the two heptad-repeats of Mfn2 is fusion inhibitory whereas a positive role of the Mfn2/DLP1 interaction in mitochondrial fusion is suggested. Our results imply that the differential binding of Mfn2-HR1 to HR2 and DLP1 regulates mitochondrial fusion and that DLP1 may act as a regulatory factor for efficient execution of both fusion and fission of mitochondria.     

Long-term treadmill exercise improves spatial memory of male APPswe/PS1dE9 mice by regulation of BDNF expression and microglia activation

Increasing evidence suggests that physical activity could delay or attenuate the symptoms of Alzheimer''s disease (AD). But the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. To investigate the effect of long-term treadmill exercise on the spatial memory of AD mice and the possible role of β-amyloid, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and microglia in the effect, male APPswe/PS1dE9 AD mice aged 4 months were subjected to treadmill exercise for 5 months with 6 sessions per week and gradually increased load. A Morris water maze was used to evaluate the spatial memory. Expression levels of β-amyloid, BDNF and Iba-1 (a microglia marker) in brain tissue were detected by immunohistochemistry. Sedentary AD mice and wildtype C57BL/6J mice served as controls. The results showed that 5-month treadmill exercise significantly decreased the escape latencies (P < 0.01 on the 4th day) and improved the spatial memory of the AD mice in the water maze test. Meanwhile, treadmill exercise significantly increased the number of BDNF-positive cells and decreased the ratios of activated microglia in both the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. However, treadmill exercise did not significantly alleviate the accumulation of β-amyloid in either the cerebral cortex or the hippocampus of the AD mice (P > 0.05). The study suggested that long-term treadmill exercise could improve the spatial memory of the male APPswe/PS1dE9 AD mice. The increase in BDNF-positive cells and decrease in activated microglia might underpin the beneficial effect.     

Fzo1, a protein involved in mitochondrial fusion, inhibits apoptosis

Mitochondrial morphology and physiology are regulated by the processes of fusion and fission. Some forms of apoptosis are reported to be associated with mitochondrial fragmentation. We showed that overexpression of Fzo1A/B (rat) proteins involved in mitochondrial fusion, or silencing of Dnm1 (rat)/Drp1 (human) (a mitochondrial fission protein), increased elongated mitochondria in healthy cells. After apoptotic stimulation, these interventions inhibited mitochondrial fragmentation and cell death, suggesting that a process involved in mitochondrial fusion/fission might play a role in the regulation of apoptosis. Consistently, silencing of Fzo1A/B or Mfn1/2 (a human homolog of Fzo1A/B) led to an increase of shorter mitochondria and enhanced apoptotic death. Overexpression of Fzo1 inhibited cytochrome c release and activation of Bax/Bak, as assessed from conformational changes and oligomerization. Silencing of Mfn or Drp1 caused an increase or decrease of mitochondrial sensitivity to apoptotic stimulation, respectively. These results indicate that some of the proteins involved in mitochondrial fusion/fission modulate apoptotic cell death at the mitochondrial level.     

Novel MicroRNA-455-3p and its protective effects against abnormal APP processing and amyloid beta toxicity in Alzheimer's disease

The purpose of our study is to understand the protective role of miR-455-3p against abnormal amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing, amyloid beta (Aβ) formation, defective mitochondrial biogenesis/dynamics and synaptic damage in AD progression. In-silico analysis of miR-455-3p has identified the APP gene as a putative target. Using mutant APP cells, miR-455-3p construct, biochemical and molecular assays, immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses, we studied the protective effects of miR-455-3p on – 1) APP regulation, amyloid beta (Aβ)(1–40) & (1–42) levels, mitochondrial biogenesis & dynamics; 3) synaptic activities and 4) cell viability & apoptosis. Our luciferase reporter assay confirmed the binding of miR-455-3p at the 3’UTR of APP gene. Immunoblot, sandwich ELISA and immunostaining analyses revealed that the reduced levels of the mutant APP, Aβ(1–40) & Aβ(1–42), and C99 by miR-455-3p. We also found the reduced levels of mRNA and proteins of mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC1α, NRF1, NRF2, and TFAM) and synaptic genes (synaptophysin and PSD95) in mutant APP cells; on the other hand, mutant APP cells that express miR-455-3p showed increased mRNA and protein levels of biogenesis and synaptic genes. Additionally, expression of mitochondrial fission proteins (DRP1 and FIS1) were decreased while the fusion proteins (OPA1, Mfn1 and Mfn2) were increased by miR-455-3p. Our TEM analysis showed a decrease in mitochondria number and an increase in the size of mitochondrial length in mutant APP cells transfected with miR-455-3p. Based on these observations, we cautiously conclude that miR-455-3p regulate APP processing and protective against mutant APP-induced mitochondrial and synaptic abnormalities in AD.