Uric acid metabolism during pupal-adult development of Pieris brassicae

Uric acid metabolism has been investigated during the pupal and adult stages of Pieris brassicae. Uric acid and its main metabolite, allantoic acid, have been quantified in various organs (fat body, gut, wings) during development, in order to determine synthesis, degradation, and transport phenomena. Both labelling experiments (using 2-¹⁴C uric acid, guanine, and guanosine) and enzymatic studies (xanthine dehydrogenase, guanine deaminase, and uricase) were performed.Labelled uric acid, when injected into a young pupa, accumulates preferentially into the fat body, and its degradation leads to an increase in allantoic acid, which is found chiefly in imaginal structures (wings, heads, body wall). Since uricase is present only in low levels through the pupal stage, only a small fraction of uric acid is metabolized.In the developing pharate adult, uric acid is transported via the haemolymph from fat body to the wings and gut. Male wings accumulate more uric acid than female wings. At emergence, a large amount of uric acid and most of the allantoic acid are excreted into the meconium, but not together; uric acid is excreted into the so-called ‘meconium 1’ containing ommochromes, whereas its metabolite is eliminated only after wing expansion into ‘meconium 2’, a colourless fluid. Shortly before emergence, the fat body recovers its ability to synthesize uric acid, a fraction of which is excreted within ‘meconium 1’.During adult life, the synthesis of uric acid occurs in the fat body and ovaries, where it is especially abundant. Ageing organs (wings, heads, testes) accumulate it markedly. A small fraction is excreted together with allantoic acid by the butterfly.Purine catabolism pathways have been investigated, showing that in guanine derivatives, the freebase state of guanine leads quickly to uric acid (and its metabolites), whereas ¹⁴C-guanosine may be transformed into nucleotide and incorporated efficiently into wing pteridines when it is injected at the time of adult pigmentation.Another purine derivative, identified as adenosine, has been shown to accumulate in male fat body just before adult emergence. Its amount increases during the first days of emerged adult life, and it corresponds to an alternative pathway of purine catabolism. Its absence in females is related to development of the ovaries.     

Kinetics and fates of ammonia, urea, and uric acid during oocyte maturation and ontogeny of the Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.)

Considering that amino acids constitute an important energy fuel during early life of the Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.), it is of interest to understand how the nitrogenous end products are handled. In this study we focused on the kinetics and fates of ammonia, urea and uric acid. The results showed that ammonia (T(Amm): NH(3)+NH(4)(+)), and urea-N contents increased during final oocyte maturation. Urea-N excretion dominated the total nitrogenous end product formation in early embryos. Later, yolk T(Amm) levels increased in embryos and ammonia excretion was low. In the last part of the embryonic stage T(Amm) accumulation dominated, and was apparently due to yolk storage. Around hatching, the larval body tissues (larva with yolk-sac removed) accounted for 68% of whole animal urea-N accumulation, while T(Amm) levels increased predominately by yolk accumulation. Afterwards, ammonia excretion dominated and uric acid accumulation accounted for less than 1%. Urea, synthesised either through the ornithine-urea cycle, argininolysis or uricolysis, accounted for approximately 8% of total nitrogenous end product formation in yolk-sac larvae. The results suggested that a sequence occurred regarding which nitrogenous end products dominated and how they were handled. Urea excretion dominated in early embryos (<7 dPF), followed by yolk ammonia accumulation (7-12 dPF), and finally, ammonia excretion dominated in later embryonic and yolk-sac larval stages (>12 dPF).     

Studies in the biochemistry of cirripede eggs. IV. The free Amino-acid pool in the eggs of Balanus balanoides (L.) and B. balanus (L.) during development

Changes in the ‘free’ amino acids, betaine, and trimethylamine oxide during the development of the eggs of Balanus balanoides (L.) and B. balanus (L.) have been determined; the results are given in terms of μM/g dry wt, μM/g water, and μM/10⁶ eggs. The amino acids are derived from the yolk proteins the net composition of which is known. Free amino acids are present in considerable quantity, as is commonly the case with crustacean tissue. Changes in the individual amino acids are discussed. B. balanus eggs contain large, and relatively constant, amounts of sarcosine; its function is unknown but large quantities are present in the more highly evolved cirripedes so far examined. A possible relation between betaine glycine, and sarcosine relative to choline metabolism is considered. Large amounts of taurine are present. There is a striking increase in β-alanine in the late stages of development; in B. balanoides it comes to be the most, and in B. balanus the third most common amino acid; its possible involvement in purine metabolism is considered. The relation between the amounts of the various entities in the eggs and in the bodies of the adult are examined.     

Amino acid and protein changes in the haemolymph of developing fourth instar Chironomus tentans

The concentration of free amino acids, total soluble protein, and haemoglobin in the haemolymph of fourth instar Chironomus tentans was investigated.The concentration of the free amino acid pool increases between the early (15.7 mM/l) and mid-(33.9 mM/l) fourth larval stages followed by a decline during the late (16.9 mM/l) fourth larval period. Alanine, serine, and the amides of aspartic acid and glutamic acid are the predominant free amino acids at all stages. Physiological fluid analysis of late fourth instar haemolymph detected 32 ninhydrin positive components including 18 common amino acids plus homoarginine, ornithine, citrulline, β-alanine, α-aminoadipic acid, α-aminoisobutyric acid, and sarcosine.The concentration of total soluble protein steadily increases during fourth instar larval development to a maximum of $\text{9.3}\text{g}\text{100}\text{ml}$ followed by a decline during the pharate pupal period. A similar pattern of variation occurs in haemoglobin content which comprises from 51 to 66% of Chironomus tentans haemolymph protein.The mM percentage of individual amino acids of total haemolymph protein varies little during the fourth instar. At all stages alanine and aspartic acid are the predominant amino acids.     

Biochemical and morphological changes accompanying light organ development in the firefly, Photuris pennsylvanica

The larval light organs of the firefly, Photuris pennsylvanica, regress and are replaced by the adult lantern during metamorphosis. Larval and adult light organs are present and capable of periodic light emission during the latter stages of pupation and the early adult. The whole pupa emits a continuous, low level, glow throughout pupation.During pupation levels of luciferase and luciferin, the enzyme and substrate required in the light reaction, were found to remain constant in the posterior half of the pupa and to show an initial increase followed by a decrease in the anterior half. Levels of luciferase and luciferin in anterior halves were not affected by ablation of the larval light organs. The ratio of luciferase to luciferin concentrations changed from less than 1, in larval and pupal stages, to greater than 1, in the adult. Changes in the concentration and the localization of luciferase and luciferin were correlated with observed light organ development.     

Aspects of amino acid metabolism and nutrition in the ectoparasitoid wasp, Exeristes roborator

Exeristes roborator contains a wide variety of free amino acids, and the composition of all developmental stages was quantitatively dominated by proline and glutamic acid. The latter occurred together with lesser amounts of glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, tyrosine, and histidine which varied between developmental stages. Minor and trace amounts of most other commonly occurring amino acids were also found. The percentages or relative amounts of major constituents were not influenced when the parasite was reared on the alternate hosts, Pectinophora gossypiella and Gnorimoschema operculella. Likewise, the major characteristics of the latter hosts' free amino compositions could not be accounted for, in either case, by their diets.Differences in the relative distribution of the major amino acids between the developmental stages of E. roborator indicate large decreases in the percentage of proline occur during development from the larval to the adult stage with corresponding increases in the percentages of glycine in the pupal stage and alanine as well as other amino acids in the adult stage. The results suggest that proline may play an important rôle in E. roborator, probably as an energy reserve.The amino acid compositions of the total proteins of E. roborator and its hosts were similar and all quantitatively dominated by glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and amides. However, the disk gel electropherograms of the proteins of both hosts and parasite were different. Quantitative changes were evident in the protein pattern of the parasite when reared on the alternate hosts.E. roborator incorporated radioactivity from ¹⁴C(U)-glucose into the amino acids, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, serine, glycine, alanine, and proline. Furthermore, ¹⁴C(U)-glutamic acid was incorporated into a wide variety of proteins. The data suggest that the above amino acids may be non-essential dietary components for E. roborator. However, quantitative determinations indicate that the amount of glutamic acid synthesized does not account for the amount incorporated into protein over the same time period.     

Do mammals,birds, reptiles and fish have similar nitrogen conserving systems?

Comparative physiological studies are a powerful tool for revealing common animal adaptations. Amino acid catabolism produces ammonia which is detoxified through the synthesis of urea (mammals, some fish), uric acid (birds), or urea and uric acid (reptiles). In mammalian herbivores and omnivores, urea nitrogen is salvaged by a series of steps involving urea transfer into the intestine, microbial mediated urea hydrolysis with synthesis of amino acids utilizing the liberated ammonia and transfer of the amino acids back to the host. A similar series of steps occur in omnivorous/granivorous and herbivorous birds, although in this case urine, containing uric acid, is refluxed directly into the intestine where microbes degrade the uric acid and utilize the liberated ammonia for amino acid synthesis. These amino acids are transferred back to the host. In reptiles and ureotelic fish not all of these steps have been experimentally confirmed. Reptiles like birds, reflux urine into the intestine where it is exposed to the microflora. However, the capacity of these microbes to breakdown the uric acid and urea and utilize ammonia for amino acid synthesis has not been documented. Ureotelic fish transfer urea into the intestine where urease (presumably of bacterial origin) hydrolyzes the urea. However, the amino acid synthesizing capacity of the intestinal microflora has not been studied. The series of steps, as outlined, would define the prevailing nitrogen conservation system for herbivores and omnivores at least. However, it would appear that some animals, in particular the fruit-eating bat and perhaps the fruit-eating bird, may have evolved alternative, as yet uncharacterized, adaptations to a very limited nitrogen intake.     

Accumulation of large neutral amino acids in the brain of sparse-fur mice at hyperammonemic state

Sparse-fur mice which are deficient in ornithine transcarbamylase, the second-step enzyme in the urea cycle, were examined for hyperammonemia and its relationship with encephalopathy. We compared amino acid concentrations in the serum and brain of spf mice with those of control mice. Unlike hepatic encephalopathy we could not find marked amino acid changes in the serum of spf mice besides low levels of citrulline and arginine. But in the brain of spf mice, glutamine was increased strikingly during hyperammonemia, and a concomitant accumulation of large neutral amino acids such as tyrosine, phenylalanine, methionine, and histidine was observed. The accumulation of these large neutral amino acids in the brain was not influenced by 24-hr fasting which caused increases in branched chain amino acids in the serum. From these results, we conclude that the accumulation of the large neutral amino acid in the brain of hyperammonemic state is caused by uptake of ammonia in the brain and the subsequent accumulation of glutamine, but is not influenced by a decreased ratio of branched chain amino acids to aromatic amino acids in the serum.     

The role of energy,serine, glycine,and 1-carbon units in the cost of nitrogen excretion in mammals and birds

The efficiency with which dietary protein is used affects the nitrogen excretion by the animal and the environmental impact of animal production. Urea and uric acid are the main nitrogen excretion products resulting from amino acid catabolism in mammals and birds, respectively. Nitrogen excretion can be reduced by using low-protein diets supplemented with free amino acids to ensure that essential amino acids are not limiting performance. However, there are questions whether the capacity to synthesize certain nonessential amino acids is sufficient when low-protein diets are used. This includes glycine, which is used for uric acid synthesis. Nitrogen excretion not only implies a nitrogen and energy loss in the urine, but energy is also required to synthesize the excretion products. The objective of this study was to quantify the energy and metabolic requirements for nitrogen excretion products in the urine. The stoichiometry of reactions to synthesize urea, uric acid, allantoin, and creatinine was established using information from a publicly available database. The energy cost was at least 40.3, 60.7, 64.7, and 65.4 kJ/g excreted N for urea, uric acid, allantoin, and creatinine, respectively, of which 56, 56, 47, and 85% were retained in the excretion product. Data from a broiler study were used to carry out a flux balance analysis for nitrogen, serine, glycine, and so-called 1-carbon units. The flux balance indicated that the glycine intake was insufficient to cover the requirements for growth and uric acid excretion. The serine intake was also insufficient to cover the glycine deficiency, underlining the importance of the de novo synthesis of serine and glycine. One-carbon units are also a component of uric acid and can be synthesized from serine and glycine. There are indications that the de novo synthesis of 1-carbon units may be a “weak link” in metabolism, because of the stoichiometric dependency between the synthesized 1-carbon units and glycine. The capacity to catabolize excess 1-carbon units may be limited, especially in birds fed low-protein diets. Therefore, there may be an upper limit to the 1-carbon-to-glycine requirement ratio in relation to nutrients that supply 1-carbon units and glycine. The ratio can be reduced by increasing uric acid excretion (i.e., reducing protein deposition) or by dietary supplementation with glycine. The hypothesis that the 1-carbon-to-glycine requirement ratio should be lower than the supply ratio provides a plausible explanation for the growth reduction in low-protein diets and the positive response to the dietary glycine supply.     

Aspects of excretion of antlion larvae (Neuroptera: myrmeleontidae) during feeding and non-feeding periods

The main nitrogenous excretory products were determined for third instar Cueta sp. and Furgella intermedia larvae during periods of food abundance and for F. intermedia during starvation periods. Biochemical analysis indicated that allantoin was the main nitrogenous excretory product, with smaller quantities of ammonia, urea and uric acid. Respectively 9 and 13amino acids of low concentrations (0.005-0.329g/l) were detected by high pressure liquid chromatography in the excreta of Cueta sp. and F. intermedia larvae. The volume of urine produced and concentrations of the nitrogenous excretory products of fed Cueta sp. and fed F. intermedia larvae did not differ. F. intermedia excreted smaller volumes of urine and smaller quantities of nitrogenous excretory products during starvation than during periods of food abundance. Feeding conditions rather than the pitbuilding or non-pitbuilding lifestyles seem to be the major influence on the excretory products of these antlion larvae.     

Decomposition of nucleic acids and some of their degradation products by microorganisms

A study was made of the decomposition of nucleic acids, uric acid and urea by different groups of soil microorganisms including bacilli, non-coryneform rods, corynebacteria (arthrobacters and non-arthrobacters), streptomycetes, fungi and yeasts. Hydrolysis of nucleic acids was found to be a common phenomenon. The decomposition of uric acid was readily carried out by arthrobacters and streptomycetes. Most bacilli, however, lacked this capacity. Few soil microorganisms degraded urea. Additional investigations were made of the breakdown of nucleic acids and their degradation products by coryneform bacteria from soil, cheese, sea-fish, sewage, the phyllosphere and poultry litter. Generally, coryneforms from soil could utilize allantoin as the sole source of nitrogen, carbon and energy in contrast to most of those from cheese which could not. Breakdown of uric acid and allantoin by washed cells of a coryneform strain from soil resulted in formation of ammonia; breakdown of these compounds by washed cells of a strain from cheese resulted in accumulation of urea.     

Total lipid and fatty acid compositions of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lertha sheppardi</Emphasis> (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae) during its main life stages

Total lipid and the fatty acid compositions of phospholipid and triacylglycerol fractions, prepared from eggs, 3^rd instars of larvae, pupae, male and female adults of Lertha sheppardi, were analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The effect of diet (adults’ nutrition) on fatty acid composition of L. sheppardi adults was also investigated. Total lipid of L. sheppardi considerably increased in adults compared with immature stages. There was a significant decrease in total lipid level in larval stage in contrast with egg stage. Qualitative analysis revealed the presence of 14 fatty acids during all stages. The major components were C16 and C18 saturated and unsaturated components which are ubiquitous to most animal species. In addition to these components, one odd-chain (C17:0) and prostaglandin precursor fatty acids were found. The fatty acid profiles of phospholipids and triacylglycerols were substantially different. In phospholipid fraction, monounsaturated fatty acids were the major proportion of fatty acids in both sex of adults and pupae, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids were the most dominant fatty acids in eggs and 3^rd instars. Results of triacylglycerol fraction revealed that fatty acid composition of eggs had higher level of C16:1, C18:0 and C18:3n-3 content than that of 3^rd instars and pupae, which suggests accumulation of energetic and structural reserve materials during embryonic development. At more advanced developmental stages, mainly in adult females, the amount of C16:1 increased once again, which may be related to the need for accumulation of sufficient energy and of carbon reservoir in the developing new vitellum. Percentages of C18:1 were significantly high in adult stages compared to other stages. These findings indicate that the accumulation and consumption of fatty acids fluctuate through different development stages. Diet did not effect the fatty acid composition of L. sheppardi adults.     

Nitrogen partitioning and blood meal utilization by Aedes aegypti (Diptera Culicidae)

The utilization of the blood meal by mosquitoes was investigated by first feeding females quantities of blood ranging from 1 to 5 mg, and then analyzing the faeces for the various by-products of protein catabolism that were subsequently eliminated. The nitrogeneous waste products in order of importance were uric acid, histidine, ammonia and arginine. Only traces of the other amino acids were excreted.The total amount of each faecal substance varied linearly with the quantity of blood ingested, however their relative proportions did not change. Regardless of blood meal size the quantily of uric acid and ammonia produced indicates that about 80% of the non-histidine and arginine amino acids are deaminated and utilized for metabolic purposes other than egg protein synthesis.Most of the histidine and about one half of the arginine content of the blood were excreted as free amino acids, but the other amino acids were lost in trace amounts.Nineteen per cent of the total ingested amino acids was incorporated into soluble yolk proteins and this proportion was constant even for small blood meals that result in a reduction in the numbers of eggs produced.The comparative aspects of nitrogen partitioning and blood meal utilization by haematophagous insects, as well as the factors that affect blood meal utilization and fecundity in A. aegypti are discussed.     

Changes in soluble amino nitrogen,protein, nitrate reductase activity and abscisic acid during development of wheat grain

Trends in the time course, changes in the moisture, soluble amino acids, proline, abscisic acid contents and nitrate reductase activity determined byin vivo method in the developing seeds of wheat were studied. Maximum dry matter augmentation in the seed took place in the period between 10–30 days after anthesis. Per cent moisture and moisture content started declining 15 days and 25 days after anthesis, respectively. Levels of soluble amino acids, proline and nitrate reductase activity were higher during initial stages of seed development, but decreased with increasing magnitude of dehydration and accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) in the maturing seeds.     

小麦吸浆虫保幼激素酯酶和保幼激素环氧水解酶基因的克隆及在滞育和变态发育过程中的表达动态

【目的】保幼激素(juvenile hormone, JH)在小麦吸浆虫Sitodiplosis mosellana滞育诱导及滞育后静息状态的维持中发挥着重要作用。保幼激素酯酶(hormone esterase, JHE)和保幼激素环氧水解酶(juvenile hormone epoxide hydrolase, JHEH)是调控JH滴度的重要降解酶。本研究旨在探讨JHE和JHEH在小麦吸浆虫滞育和变态发育中潜在功能。【方法】通过RT-PCR和RACE技术从小麦吸浆虫滞育前幼虫克隆JHE和JHEH全长cDNA序列;利用生物信息学软件分析其核苷酸及编码蛋白特性;采用qPCR技术分析其在小麦吸浆虫滞育不同时期(滞育前、滞育期、滞育后静息期和滞育后发育)3龄幼虫及1龄幼虫到成虫不同发育阶段(1-2龄幼虫、预蛹、初蛹、中蛹、后蛹、雌成虫和雄成虫)中的表达水平。【结果】克隆获得了cDNA全长分别为3 102和1 980 bp的小麦吸浆虫SmJHE和SmJHEH基因(GenBank登录号分别为MG876768和MG876769),其开放阅读框分别长1 740和1 371 bp,分别编码579和456个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量分别为65.67和51.65 kD。SmJHE蛋白含有5个JHE家族特有的保守模块,SmJHEH含有催化三联体Asp228, Asp404和His431及组成阴氧离子洞的两个Tyr(Tyr299和Tyr374)和HGWP花样结构。序列比对和进化分析表明,SmJHE和SmJHEH均与双翅目(Diptera)长角亚目(Nematocera)昆虫同源蛋白氨基酸序列一致性较高,亲缘关系最近。不同滞育时期的表达模式表明,SmJHE和SmJHEH在滞育前期(1龄到滞育前的3龄幼虫早期)表达量变化不明显,进入滞育后表达量基本维持恒定,但均在滞育后静息阶段的当年12月至翌年1月最低。发育表达模式表明,幼虫恢复发育后SmJHE表达量逐渐升高,预蛹期达到最高,在雌成虫中的表达量显著低于雄成虫中的;SmJHEH表达量则在预蛹期最低,在雌成虫中最高。【结论】SmJHE和SmJHEH参与小麦吸浆虫滞育调控,其表达量的降低与滞育后静息阶段JH的累积有关;SmJHE在发育过程中表达量的升高可能参与幼虫到蛹的变态,表达量的降低可能与生殖发育有关。     

麦红吸浆虫3-羟基-3-甲基戊二酰辅酶A还原酶基因SmHMGR的克隆及在滞育与发育变态过程中的表达动态

【目的】3-羟基-3-甲基戊二酰辅酶A还原酶(HMGR)是保幼激素(JH)合成途径的限速酶。麦红吸浆虫Sitodiplosis mosellana是一种典型的专性幼虫滞育昆虫。本研究旨在探讨HMGR基因在麦红吸浆虫滞育和发育变态过程中的作用。【方法】通过RT-PCR和RACE技术克隆麦红吸浆虫滞育前幼虫HMGR基因全长cDNA序列;利用生物信息学软件分析HMGR基因核苷酸和其编码的蛋白氨基酸序列特性;采用qPCR技术测定其在麦红吸浆虫滞育不同时期3龄幼虫及不同发育阶段(1-2龄幼虫、预蛹、初蛹、中蛹和后蛹以及雌雄成虫)中的mRNA表达水平。【结果】克隆获得一条麦红吸浆虫HMGR基因全长cDNA序列,命名为SmHMGR(GenBank登录号: MG876766)。该基因全长2 548 bp,其中开放阅读框长2 328 bp,编码775个氨基酸,预测的蛋白分子量为84.16 kD,理论等电点为8.29。序列分析发现该基因编码的蛋白具有HMGR蛋白家族典型的HMG-CoA-reductase-classⅠ催化功能域及其他保守功能基序;序列比对和系统发育分析表明,SmHMGR与达氏按蚊Anopheles darling等长角亚目(Nematocera)昆虫HMGR的相似性最高、亲缘关系最近。SmHMGR在麦红吸浆虫滞育前的3龄早期幼虫中表达量显著升高,进入滞育后一直维持较高水平,并在滞育后静息阶段的当年12月至翌年1月达到最高。SmHMGR在蛹期表达量低于幼虫期,预蛹期表达量最低;在雌成虫中表达量显著高于在蛹和雄成虫中的表达量。【结论】SmHMGR的表达与麦红吸浆虫发育密切相关,可能在滞育诱导、维持及滞育后静息状态的维持及生殖中发挥作用,其表达量的降低可能参与了幼虫到蛹的变态。     

Isolation and characterization of ribosomes from thoraces of the sheep blowfly,Lucilia cuprina,and their capacity for protein synthesis at different stages of development

The isolation and characterization of ribosomal fractions from thoraces of Lucilia cuprina have been described and their capacity for in vitro protein synthesis studied at different stages of development. There are large differences in the yield of ribosomes during development, and these probably reflect differences in the number of ribosomes in vivo. The amino acid incorporation activity varied at different stages of development and this variation correlated with the percentage of polysomes present. Maximal activity was found just after adult emergence. Results obtained by the use of supernatant fractions from different stages of development suggest that control of protein synthesis in this insect takes place at the level of translation.     

Rectal sac distention is induced by 20-hydroxyecdysone in the pupa of Bombyx mori

Holometabolous insects do not excrete but store metabolic wastes during the pupal period. The waste is called meconium and is purged after adult emergence. Although the contents of meconium are well-studied, the developmental and physiological regulation of meconium accumulation is poorly understood. In Bombyx mori, meconium is accumulated in the rectal sac; thereby, the rectal sac distends at the late pupal stage. Here, we show that rectal sac distention occurs between 4 and 5 days after pupation. The distention is halted by brain-removal just after larval-pupal ecdysis but not by brain-removal 1 day after pupation. In the pupae, brain-removal just after ecdysis kept the hemolymph ecdysteroid titer low during early and mid-pupal stages. An injection of 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) evoked the distention that was halted by brain-removal in a dose-dependent manner. Therefore, brain-removal caused the lack of ecdysteroid, and rectal sac distention did not appear in the brain-removed pupae because of the lack of ecdysteroid. We conclude that rectal sac distention is one of the developmental events regulated by 20E during the pupal period in B. mori.     

Non-targeted metabolomic evaluations during seed germination and seedling growth in Salicornia brachiata (Roxb.) under saline conditions

Experimental studies were conducted for metabolomic profiling during seed germination and seedling development in Salicornia brachaita under saline conditions. The results revealed accumulation of sucrose, mannose, glycerol, methionine, tryptophan, glycerol, protocathechoic acid, and mannonic acid in germinating seeds. Abundance of rhamnose, glucose, glutamine, fructose, ornithine, quininic acid, proline and ketoglutaric acid were recorded during emergence of radical (EoR) and cotyledonary stage (CS) at 50% strength of seawater (SW) salinity. Higher levels of myo-inositol, ethanolamine, isoleucine and talose at 48 hours (hrs) of imbibition, EoR and CS stages; while glycine, tyrosine and turanose were so at CS stage only. Under 200 mM NaCl, richness of stearic acid, quercetin, leucine, erythritol and psicose were noted at 48 hrs of imbibition followed by EoR stage. Fructose, ornithine, mannitol, asparagine, mallic acid, glucose and citric acid were abundant at EoR whereas aminobutanoic acid, hexanedioic acid and tyramine were so at CS stage. Among detected metabolites maximum number of metabolites showed hits with amioacyl-tRNA biosynthesis pathway and the amino acid biosynthesis pathway had maximum impact during seedling development. Role of metabolic pathways (including amino acid metabolism) and differential expression of genes related to these pathways are suggested in meeting the energy needs for varied biological activities during seed germination and subsequent seedling development in S. brachiata.