TLR9的特性及其介导的TLR9/CpG-DNA免疫信号通路

TLRs在天然免疫应答中发挥着重要作用,构成了机体抗感染的第一道防线,是沟通天然免疫和获得性免疫的桥梁。其中TLR9已经被证实能够识别细菌DNA中免疫刺激序列CpG,从而激活哺乳动物细胞的天然免疫机制,这一发现具有重要的生物学意义与应用价值。它不仅进一步推进了外源DNA激活哺乳动物抗感染天然免疫的进一步研究,更为CpG-DNA应用于抗感染、肿瘤和免疫缺陷疾病等的治疗提供新的思路,为改进DNA疫苗效果提供非常有益的帮助。     

外周血TLR2和TLR9在小儿复发性单纯疱疹中的作用

目的:研究外周血Toll受体2(TLR2)和Toll受体9(TLR9)在小儿复发性单纯疱疹(RHS)中的作用。方法:选择从2014年1月至2016年12月在我院就诊的RHS患儿46例纳入本次研究,将其记为观察组。另选同期在我院进行健康体检的儿童45例作为对照组。对比两组外周血TLR2及TLR9水平,白细胞介素-2(IL-2)、白细胞介素-4(IL-4)及C反应蛋白(CRP)水平,采用Spearman相关性分析患儿外周血TLR2及TLR9水平与其炎症指标的相关性。结果:观察组外周血TLR2、TLR9和TLR2及TLR9双表达的水平均明显高于对照组(P0.05)。观察组的IL-2水平较对照组降低(P0.05),IL-4及CRP水平较对照组升高(P0.05)。Spearman相关性分析显示,患儿外周血TLR2及TLR9水平与其IL-2呈负相关(P0.05),与IL-4和CRP呈正相关(P0.05)。结论:TLR2和TLR9在RHS患儿外周血中均具有较高表达,且与机体炎症因子IL-2、IL-4及CRP间具有紧密联系,值得临床重视。     

TLR2和TLR4对新生儿免疫细胞中Th1/Th2细胞因子的影响

为了探讨TLR2和TLR4对新生儿免疫细胞中Th1/Th2细胞因子的影响,本研究采用LPS和PGN刺激新生儿脐带血单个核细胞、成人外周血单个核细胞和人肥大细胞,并用特异性信号分子抑制剂PD98059处理单核细胞和肥大细胞,测定不同处理组ERK的磷酸化强度、IL-6、IL-12、IL-13和RANTES细胞因子水平以及HMC-1细胞脱颗粒情况。研究显示,经过LPS或PGN刺激后,单核细胞和肥大细胞中ERK的磷酸化强度与对照组相比均显著升高(p0.05);通过LPS和PGN共同刺激后,脐带血单个核细胞中ERK的磷酸化高于单个配体刺激。在添加了ERK特异性抑制剂PD98059后,LPS和PGN共刺激的脐带血单个核细胞中IL-6、IL-12和IL-13浓度显著下降,而RANTES未显示明显抑制。经PGN刺激后HMC-1细胞的β-hexosaminidase释放率高于LPS,并且LPS+PGN共刺激的β-hexosaminidase释放率高于单一配体刺激。本研究表明,TLR2/TLR4与LPS/PGN结合后,通过激活ERK信号通路来调节新生儿免疫细胞中Th1/Th2细胞因子,LPS和PGN共刺激对调节新生儿免疫细胞中IL-6、IL-12和IL-13细胞因子具有协同作用。     

TLR/NF-κB信号通路与肺部疾病

Toll样受体(Toll like receptor,TLR)是一种重要的模式识别受体,核转录因子-κB(nuclear factor-κB,NF-κB)处于TLR下游信号通路中的关键位置,当TLR受到病原微生物刺激后,激活NF-κB,诱导炎症因子释放,启动固有免疫。但TLR/NF-κB信号通路过度激活,有可能导致炎症反应失控。本文将介绍TLR/NF-κB信号通路及其在肺部炎症疾病例如急性肺损伤、慢性阻塞性肺疾病、肺癌、哮喘等发生发展中的作用。     

TLR/MyD88信号通路与自身免疫性疾病

Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor,TLR)是近年来发现的一类模式识别受体,通过识别病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pattern,PAMP),激活天然免疫.TLR信号还通过上调抗原提呈细胞(antigen presenting cells,APC)表面共刺激分子及APC分泌的炎症细胞因子调节获得性免疫.TLR/MyD88信号在自身免疫性疾病的发病过程中起重要作用.本文介绍了TLR/MYD88信号通路及其在自身免疫病如实验性自身免疫脑脊髓膜炎、类风湿性关节炎、实验性自身免疫性葡萄膜炎、实验性自身免疫性心肌炎和自身免疫性肾小球肾炎等发生发展中的作用.     

Human Cytomegalovirus miR-UL112-3p Targets TLR2 and Modulates the TLR2/IRAK1/NFκB Signaling Pathway

Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes multiple microRNAs (miRNAs) whose functions are just beginning to be uncovered. Using in silico approaches, we identified the Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) innate immunity pathway as a possible target of HCMV miRNAs. Luciferase reporter assay screens further identified TLR2 as a target of HCMV miR-UL112-3p. TLR2 plays a major role in innate immune response by detecting both bacterial and viral ligands, including HCMV envelope proteins gB and gH. TLR2 activates a variety of signal transduction routes including the NFκB pathway. Furthermore, TLR2 plays an important role in controlling CMV infection both in humans and in mice. Immunoblot analysis of cells transfected with a miR-UL112-3p mimic revealed that endogenous TLR2 is down-regulated by miR-UL112-3p with similar efficiency as a TLR2-targeting siRNA (siTLR2). We next found that TLR2 protein level decreases at late times during HCMV infection and correlates with miR-UL112-3p accumulation in fibroblasts and monocytic THP1 cells. Confirming direct miR-UL112-3p targeting, down-regulation of endogenous TLR2 was not observed in cells infected with HCMV mutants deficient in miR-UL112-3p expression, but transfection of miR-UL112-3p in these cells restored TLR2 down-regulation. Using a NFκB reporter cell line, we found that miR-UL112-3p transfection significantly inhibited NFκB-dependent luciferase activity with similar efficiency as siTLR2. Consistent with this observation, miR-UL112-3p transfection significantly reduced the expression of multiple cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8) upon stimulation with a TLR2 agonist. Finally, miR-UL112-3p transfection significantly inhibited the TLR2-induced post-translational activation of IRAK1, a kinase located in the upstream section of the TLR2/NFκB signaling axis. To our knowledge, this is the first identified mechanism of TLR2 modulation by HCMV and is the first report of functional targeting of TLR2 by a viral miRNA. These results provide a novel mechanism through which a HCMV miRNA regulates the innate immune response by down-regulating TLR-2 expression.     

Herbal melanin activates TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Expression of many pro-inflammatory cytokines is controlled by the NF-κB signaling pathway. NF-κB is induced by LPS through activation of TLR4. Melanins extracted from fungal, plant and human sources modulate cytokine production and activate NF-κB pathway. We showed that a herbal melanin (HM) from Nigella sativa L. modulates cytokine production and suggested it as a ligand for TLR4. In this study we investigated the possibility that the HM-induced cytokine production is via an NF-κB signaling pathway. We found that HM induced the degradation of IκBα, a key step in the activation of NF-κB. Moreover, addition of IκB kinase (IKK) specific inhibitors effectively inhibited the observed HM-induced production of IL-8 and IL-6 by TLR4-transfected HEK293 cells and THP-1 cells. Our results have also shown that HM induced cleavage of caspase 8, and that this cleavage was partially abrogated by IKK inhibitors. We suggest that HM can modulate the inflammatory response by inducing IL-8 and IL-6 production via TLR4-dependent activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway.     

TLR4/P38/JNK信号通路在海马神经元凋亡中的作用

目的：探讨Toll样受体4（TLR4）/P38/JNK信号通路在海马神经元凋亡中的作用及其机制,为神经退行性疾病（ND）的发病机制与防治研究提供新的实验依据。方法：采用体外培养7 d的新生大鼠海马神经元,免疫荧光双标法鉴定海马神经元纯度。用TLR4配体脂多糖（LPS）或TLR4抗体预处理海马神经元,以激活或阻断TLR4的作用。实验1设正常对照组、LPS组及TLR4抗体+ LPS组;免疫荧光法检测P-P38,P-JNK的表达。实验2分为6组：正常对照组,LPS组,TLR4抗体+ LPS组,SB202190（抑制P38） + LPS组,SP600125（抑制JNK） + LPS组,PD98059（抑制ERK） + LPS组;分别用TLR4抗体、P38、JNK及ERK的抑制剂预处理海马神经元后再给以LPS刺激24 h,Western blot法检测Bcl-2,Bax,Active-caspase-3的表达变化;流式细胞术检测海马神经元凋亡率。结果：LPS组海马神经元P-P38、P-JNK的表达明显高于正常对照组（P < 0. 01）,TLR4抗体+ LPS组P-P38,P-JNK表达显著低于LPS组（P <0.01）。与正常对照组相比,LPS组海马神经元Bcl-2/Bax表达减少、Active-caspase-3表达增加,海马神经元凋亡率增加（P < 0.01）。而TLR4抗体+ LPS组、SB202190 + LPS组、SP600125 + LPS组Bcl-2/Bax显著高于LPS组、Active cas-pase-3显著低于LPS组（P < 0.01）,海马神经元凋亡率显著低于LPS组（P < 0. 05,P < 0. 01）。PD98059 + LPS组与LPS组海马神经元凋亡率无明显差异。结论：①海马神经元中有TLR4介导的P38/JNK信号通路。②海马神经元TLR4激活后,P-P38、P-JNK表达增加,使Bcl-2/Bax的比例降低和Active-caspase-3表达增加,从而促进海马神经元的凋亡。海马神经元凋亡过程中有TLR4介导的P38/JNK信号通路的参与。     

乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原抑制TLR2 和TLR4的激活

目的　研究乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原(HBsAg) 在乙型肝炎病毒逃逸机体天然免疫中的作用。方法　 PMA诱导THP-1分化成巨噬样细胞,并与乙肝表面抗原（HBsAg）共培养作比较,在LPS （TLR4配体）和pam3csk4（TLR1,2配体）的刺激下,检测细胞上清液中细胞因子IL-10,IL-12的表达及胞内IL-10,IL-12 mRNA 的含量,并利用免疫荧光观察NF-κB p65入核和Western blotting检测IκB-α蛋白降解与ERK蛋白磷酸化水平来判定TLR信号通路活化程度。结果　HBsAg的胞外处理能以剂量依赖的方式干扰pam3csk4和LPS诱导的IL-10和IL-12的产生,同时HBsAg的存在明显干扰pam3csk4和LPS诱导的NF-κB p65入核和IκB-α降解及ERK蛋白磷酸化水平。结论　HBsAg抑制TLR2和TLR4的激活。     

NLRC5 negatively regulates LTA-induced inflammation via TLR2/NF-κB and participates in TLR2-mediated allergic airway inflammation

NLRC5, the largest member of the Nod-like receptor (NLR) family, has been reported to play a pivotal role in regulating inflammatory responses. Recent evidence suggests that NLRC5 participates in Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways and negatively modulates nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. In this study, we investigated the interaction between NLRC5 and TLR2 in the NF-κB inflammatory signaling pathway and the involvement of NLRC5 in TLR2-mediated allergic airway inflammation. We knocked down TLR2 and NLRC5, respectively in the RAW264.7 macrophage cell line by small interfering RNA (siRNA) and then stimulated the knockdown cells with lipoteichoic acid (LTA). In comparison with the negative siRNA group, the level of NLRC5 expression was lower in the TLR2 siRNA group, with a reduction in the NF-κB-related inflammatory response. Conversely, in the NLRC5 knockdown cells, after LTA-treated the level of TLR2 expression did not change but the expression levels of both NF-κB pp65 and NLRP3 increased remarkably. Thus, we hypothesize that NLRC5 participates in the LTA-induced inflammatory signaling pathway and regulates the inflammation via TLR2/NF-κB. Similarly, in subsequent in vivo experiments, we demonstrated that the expression level of NLRC5 was significantly increased in the ovalbumin-induced allergic airway inflammation. However, this effect disappeared in TLR2-deficient (TLR2 ^−/−) mice and was accompanied by reduced levels of NF-κB expression and airway inflammation. In conclusion, NLRC5 negatively regulates LTA-induced inflammatory response via a TLR2/NF-κB pathway in macrophages and also participates in TLR2-mediated allergic airway inflammation.     

饲料中维生素D3的添加水平对黄颡鱼幼鱼生长和Toll样受体TLR18、TLR19和TLR21的影响

为了探讨饲料中维生素D₃添加水平对黄颡鱼(Pelteobagrus fulvidraco)生长和Toll样受体的影响, 研究设计了5个不同浓度梯度的维生素D₃饲料(1120、2260、3950、8030和16600 IU/kg), 对体重为(5.0±0.2) g的黄颡鱼进行了为期12周的生长实验, 并在生长实验结束后进行鮰爱德华氏菌(Edwardsiella ictaluri)攻毒72h。于攻毒前(0)和攻毒后(72h)采样, 每个饲料组分别取6尾鱼的脾脏、头肾、肝脏和前肠四个组织, 检测不同浓度维生素D₃处理对攻毒前和攻毒后TLR18、TLR19和TLR21基因表达量的影响。同时另取6条新鲜黄颡鱼的肌肉、头肾、肾脏、皮肤、脑、鳃、脾脏、胃上皮、小肠和肝脏, 检测TLR18、TLR19和TLR21基因在黄颡鱼中的组织分布。结果表明: 不同的维生素D₃添加水平会显著影响黄颡鱼幼鱼的生长性能; TLR18、TLR19和TLR21基因在所检测的组织中均有表达, 但在脾脏中表达量最高; 饲料中不同维生素D₃含量在攻毒前后均会显著影响TLR18、TLR19和TLR21在头肾、脾脏、肝脏和前肠中的表达, 攻毒后基因的表达显著高于攻毒前; TLR18、TLR19和TLR21在不同组织中的表达和饲料中维生素D₃的浓度相关, 研究结果表明饲料中添加合适剂量的维生素D₃, 可以促进相关免疫基因的表达, 从而增强黄颡鱼对病原微生物的抵抗力。     

乳源性复合益生菌对糖尿病大鼠肾组织 TLR2、TLR4/NFκB信号通路的影响

目的研究乳源性复合益生菌对糖尿病大鼠肾组织Toll样受体2(TLR2)、Toll样受体4(TLR4)、核转录因子κB(NFκB)表达的影响。方法将高脂饮食和链脲佐菌素(STZ)诱导的糖尿病SD大鼠模型随机分为模型组、二甲双胍组、利拉鲁肽组、复合益生菌低剂量组和复合益生菌高剂量组,正常SD大鼠为对照组,每组8只。血糖仪检测不同时段血糖值,ELISA法检测糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)含量,生化仪检测大鼠尿素氮(BUN)、肌酐(Scr)、24 h尿蛋白定量(24h Alb)的变化,HE染色观察肾脏组织形态,qPCR法检测肾组织TLR2、TLR4的mRNA的表达以及Western blot检测TLR2、NFκBpp65蛋白表达量。结果与模型组相比,复合益生菌组大鼠HbA1c、BUN、Scr及24h Alb水平明显下降,并且复合益生菌能够明显改善肾脏的组织形态,显著降低TLR2、TLR4的mRNA的表达和TLR2、NFκBpp65蛋白表达量。结论复合益生菌可显著改善糖尿病大鼠早期肾脏损害,其机制与部分抑制糖尿病大鼠肾组织中TLR2、TLR4/NFκB信号通路有关。     

TLR2和TLR4在抗病毒天然免疫应答中的新作用

越来越多的研究表明TLR2和TLR4参与宿主细胞抗病毒感染的天然免疫应答,为了进一步了解TLR2和TLR4的新作用,本文重点归纳TLR2和TLR4的细胞定位、活化的信号途径和介导的细胞因子反应及其共受体,详细总结TLR2和TLR4识别的病毒及介导的抗病毒天然免疫应答,指出TLR2与TLR4互作的新方式,旨在为宿主抗病毒感染的新机制提供新思路。     

Andrograpanin mitigates lipopolysaccharides induced endometritis via TLR4/NF-κB pathway

Endometritis is an inflammatory disease that is caused by various pathogenic organisms. Andrograpanin is a compound of Andrographis paniculata, which has an important role in many inflammatory diseases, but the molecular mechanism of andrograpanin to combat inflammation is unclear. This study shows the anti-inflammatory effect of andrograpanin on Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) stimulated bovine endometrial epithelial cells (bEECs) and LPS-induced mouse model. We investigated the cytotoxic effect of bEECs by using CCK-8 analysis. Quantification of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) protein levels and mRNA was carried out using RT-qPCR and ELISA, respectively. The protein expressions of p65 and IκBα were assessed by western blot and immunofluorescence to check the inhibition of p65 translocation into the nucleus. The treatment effect of andrograpanin on mouse uterine tissues was determined by histopathology. in vivo, curative effect experiments showed that andrograpanin significantly reduced the endometrial injury in a mouse model. Our studies first confirmed that andrograpanin had no cytotoxic effect at 7.5,15 and 30 μg/mL concentration on bEECs. Following, Andrograpanin significantly reduced the mRNA and protein level of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α both in vivo and in vitro. Finally, Andrograpanin inhibited the IκBα degradation and p65 phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated bEECs and LPS-induced endometrial injury. Our results showed that andrograpanin might have therapeutic effects against endometritis.     

TLR9与先天性免疫反应

TLR9（Toll-likereceptor9）是一种微生物病原相关分子结构模式识别受体,TLR9能够识别CpG—ODN（胞嘧啶磷酸鸟甘-寡聚脱氧核苷酸）,使病原相关受体在先天性免疫细胞上表达,并激活下游炎性通路。研究表明,TLR9在先天性免疫反应中产生了重要作用,如脓毒血症、自身免疫性疾病、刀豆体球蛋白A介导肝炎性肝脏损伤、炎性泡沫细胞形成、缺血再灌注损伤等,并且与多种致病因子相关联,如肝x受体、甲酰多肽受体、线粒体DNA等。     

TLR与足细胞损伤

TLRs（Toll—likereceptors）是一类重要的模式识别受体家族,主要调节灭然免疫反应。研究发现在。肾脏固有细胞及间质细胞都有TLR表达,其介导的炎性反应参与了许多肾脏疾病的发生。多种足细胞标志蛋白的发现加快了足细胞表面分子的研究进程。目前已发现足细胞表面有TLR的表达,且TLR的表达与足细胞的损伤有关。     

TLR家族及其功能研究进展

由于TLR能识别病原体,从而在病原体入侵机体的早期即启动天然免疫,提示其在抗感染中的重要作用。至今已发现的TLR家族中的TLR1～10,其中TLR～5的结构已经被确定,而对于TLR的功能,现今对TLR在细菌内毒素(LPS)作用下引起的免疫毒理学作用的研究较为深入,提示TLR对由病原体引起的免疫病理损伤有重要的作用。随着研究的深入,发现TLR在促进细胞因子的合成与释放,引发炎症反应;促进免疫细胞膜表面表达相关免疫分子,促进免疫细胞的成熟和功能化;抗病毒感染;调节免疫应答;诱导一氧化氮(NO)依赖性杀菌活性;介导全身免疫病理损伤以及其家族间的协同作用影响免疫应答等方面起到重要的作用。     

Microglia Induce Neurotoxic IL-17+ γδ T Cells Dependent on TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 Activation

Background

Interleukin-17 (IL-17) acts as a key regulator in central nervous system (CNS) inflammation. γδ T cells are an important innate source of IL-17. Both IL-17+ γδ T cells and microglia, the major resident immune cells of the brain, are involved in various CNS disorders such as multiple sclerosis and stroke. Also, activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways contributes to CNS damage. However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation and interaction of these cellular and molecular components remain unclear.

Objective

In this study, we investigated the crosstalk between γδ T cells and microglia activated by TLRs in the context of neuronal damage. To this end, co-cultures of IL-17+ γδ T cells, neurons, and microglia were analyzed by immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, ELISA and multiplex immunoassays.

Results

We report here that IL-17+ γδ T cells but not naïve γδ T cells induce a dose- and time-dependent decrease of neuronal viability in vitro. While direct stimulation of γδ T cells with various TLR ligands did not result in up-regulation of CD69, CD25, or in IL-17 secretion, supernatants of microglia stimulated by ligands specific for TLR2, TLR4, TLR7, or TLR9 induced activation of γδ T cells through IL-1β and IL-23, as indicated by up-regulation of CD69 and CD25 and by secretion of vast amounts of IL-17. This effect was dependent on the TLR adaptor myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) expressed by both γδ T cells and microglia, but did not require the expression of TLRs by γδ T cells. Similarly to cytokine-primed IL-17+ γδ T cells, IL-17+ γδ T cells induced by supernatants derived from TLR-activated microglia also caused neurotoxicity in vitro. While these neurotoxic effects required stimulation of TLR2, TLR4, or TLR9 in microglia, neuronal injury mediated by bone marrow-derived macrophages did not require TLR signaling. Neurotoxicity mediated by IL-17+ γδ T cells required a direct cell-cell contact between T cells and neurons.

Conclusion

Taken together, these results point to a crucial role for microglia activated through TLRs in polarization of γδ T cells towards neurotoxic IL-17+ γδ T cells.     

膜糖蛋白Ⅱb/Ⅲa单抗通过抑制HMGB1/TLR4 途径减轻ApoE-/-小鼠动脉粥样硬化

观察膜糖蛋白(GP) Ⅱb/Ⅲa 单抗对小鼠动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis,As)病变和HMGB1/TLR4途径基因表达变化的影响,以探讨膜糖蛋白Ⅱb/Ⅲa 受体拮抗剂对As进程的影响及其机制．30只5周龄雄性ApoE^-/-小鼠随机均分为3组：溶剂对照组(生理盐水50 μl,腹腔注射),IgG 对照组(50 μg,腹腔注射),GP Ⅱb/Ⅲa 单抗组(50 μg,腹腔注射)．实验ApoE^-/-小鼠均已高脂、高胆固醇饲料喂养,10周后处死动物．油红O染色观察主动脉窦As病变;活体荧光显微镜观察颈总动脉As病变处血小板黏附;Western blot 检测HMGB-1、TLR4与NF-κB蛋白的表达;免疫组化观察主动脉窦As病变部位MOMA-2 和VCAM-1的表达;ELISA法检测血浆中HMGB-1、IL-1β、TNF-α 与MCP-1的含量．研究结果表明：与对照组相比,GPⅡb/Ⅲa 单抗组ApoE^-/-小鼠As病变和血小板黏附显著减少(P < 0.05);且该组小鼠主动脉TLR4与NF-κB蛋白的表达明显降低;其血清中的HMGB-1、IL-1β、TNF-α 与MCP-1的水平也明显下降(P < 0.05)．此外,GP Ⅱb/Ⅲa 单抗治疗显著减少As病变处MOMA-2 和VCAM-1的表达(P < 0.05)．GP Ⅱb/Ⅲa 单抗减轻ApoE^-/-小鼠As病变可能与抑制HMGB1/TLR4途径介导的炎症有关．     

Engeletin alleviates cerebral ischemia reperfusion-induced neuroinflammation via the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB network

High-mobility group box1 (HMGB1) induces inflammatory injury, and emerging reports suggest that it is critical for brain ischemia reperfusion. Engeletin, a natural Smilax glabra rhizomilax derivative, is reported to possess anti-inflammatory activity. Herein, we examined the mechanism of engeletin-mediated neuroprotection in rats having transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) against cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury. Male SD rats were induced using a 1.5 h tMCAO, following by reperfusion for 22.5 h. Engeletin (15, 30 or 60 mg/kg) was intravenously administered immediately following 0.5 h of ischemia. Based on our results, engeletin, in a dose-dependent fashion, reduced neurological deficits, infarct size, histopathological alterations, brain edema and inflammatory factors, namely, circulating IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 and IFN-γ. Furthermore, engeletin treatment markedly reduced neuronal apoptosis, which, in turn, elevated Bcl-2 protein levels, while suppressing Bax and Cleaved Caspase-3 protein levels. Meanwhile, engeletin significantly reduces overall expressions of HMGB1, TLR4, and NF-κB and attenuated nuclear transfer of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 in ischemic cortical tissue. In conclusion, engeletin strongly prevents focal cerebral ischemia via suppression of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory network.