Transformation of the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis with a phytoene desaturase for accelerated astaxanthin biosynthesis

Astaxanthin is a high-value carotenoid which is used as a pigmentation source in fish aquaculture. Additionally, a beneficial role of astaxanthin as a food supplement for humans has been suggested. The unicellular alga Haematococcus pluvialis is a suitable biological source for astaxanthin production. In the context of the strong biotechnological relevance of H. pluvialis, we developed a genetic transformation protocol for metabolic engineering of this green alga. First, the gene coding for the carotenoid biosynthesis enzyme phytoene desaturase was isolated from H. pluvialis and modified by site-directed mutagenesis, changing the leucine codon at position 504 to an arginine codon. In an in vitro assay, the modified phytoene desaturase was still active in conversion of phytoene to zeta-carotene and exhibited 43-fold-higher resistance to the bleaching herbicide norflurazon. Upon biolistic transformation using the modified phytoene desaturase gene as a reporter and selection with norflurazon, integration into the nuclear genome of H. pluvialis and phytoene desaturase gene and protein expression were demonstrated by Southern, Northern, and Western blotting, respectively, in 11 transformants. Some of the transformants had a higher carotenoid content in the green state, which correlated with increased nonphotochemical quenching. This measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence can be used as a screening procedure for stable transformants. Stress induction of astaxanthin biosynthesis by high light showed that there was accelerated accumulation of astaxanthin in one of the transformants compared to the accumulation in the wild type. Our results strongly indicate that the modified phytoene desaturase gene is a useful tool for genetic engineering of carotenoid biosynthesis in H. pluvialis.     

Transformation of the Green Alga Haematococcus pluvialis with a Phytoene Desaturase for Accelerated Astaxanthin Biosynthesis

Astaxanthin is a high-value carotenoid which is used as a pigmentation source in fish aquaculture. Additionally, a beneficial role of astaxanthin as a food supplement for humans has been suggested. The unicellular alga Haematococcus pluvialis is a suitable biological source for astaxanthin production. In the context of the strong biotechnological relevance of H. pluvialis, we developed a genetic transformation protocol for metabolic engineering of this green alga. First, the gene coding for the carotenoid biosynthesis enzyme phytoene desaturase was isolated from H. pluvialis and modified by site-directed mutagenesis, changing the leucine codon at position 504 to an arginine codon. In an in vitro assay, the modified phytoene desaturase was still active in conversion of phytoene to ζ-carotene and exhibited 43-fold-higher resistance to the bleaching herbicide norflurazon. Upon biolistic transformation using the modified phytoene desaturase gene as a reporter and selection with norflurazon, integration into the nuclear genome of H. pluvialis and phytoene desaturase gene and protein expression were demonstrated by Southern, Northern, and Western blotting, respectively, in 11 transformants. Some of the transformants had a higher carotenoid content in the green state, which correlated with increased nonphotochemical quenching. This measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence can be used as a screening procedure for stable transformants. Stress induction of astaxanthin biosynthesis by high light showed that there was accelerated accumulation of astaxanthin in one of the transformants compared to the accumulation in the wild type. Our results strongly indicate that the modified phytoene desaturase gene is a useful tool for genetic engineering of carotenoid biosynthesis in H. pluvialis.     

Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during fruit maturation in the red-fleshed orange mutant Cara Cara

Cara Cara is a spontaneous bud mutation of Navel orange (Citrus. sinensis L. Osbeck) characterized by developing fruits with a pulp of bright red coloration due to the presence of lycopene. Peel of mutant fruits is however orange and indistinguishable from its parental. To elucidate the basis of lycopene accumulation in Cara Cara, we analyzed carotenoid profile and expression of three isoprenoid and nine carotenoid genes in flavedo and pulp of Cara Cara and Navel fruits throughout development and maturation. The pulp of the mutant accumulated high amounts of lycopene, but also phytoene and phytofluene, from early developmental stages. The peel of Cara Cara also accumulated phytoene and phytofluene. The expression of isoprenoid genes and of carotenoid biosynthetic genes downstream PDS (phytoene desaturase) was higher in the pulp of Cara Cara than in Navel. Not important differences in the expression of these genes were observed between the peel of both oranges. Moreover, the content of the plant hormone ABA (abscisic acid) was lower in the pulp of Cara Cara, but the expression of two genes involved in its biosynthesis was higher. The results suggest that an altered carotenoid composition may conduct to a positive feedback regulatory mechanism of carotenoid biosynthesis in citrus fruits. Increased levels of isoprenoid precursors in the mutant that could be channeled to carotenoid biosynthesis may be related to the red-fleshed phenotype of Cara Cara.     

Functional assignment of Erwinia herbicola Eho10 carotenoid genes expressed in Escherichia coli

Erwinia herbicola is a nonphotosynthetic bacterium that is yellow pigmented due to the presence of carotenoids. When the Erwinia carotenoid biosynthetic genes are expressed in Escherichia coli, this bacterium also displays a yellow phenotype. The DNA sequence of the plasmid pPL376, carrying the entire Erwinia carotenoid gene cluster, has been found to contain 12 open reading frames (ORFs). Six of the ORFs have been identified as carotenoid biosynthesis genes that code for all the enzymes required for conversion of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) to zeaxanthin diglucoside via geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, phytoene, lycopene, -carotene, and zeaxanthin. These enzymatic steps were assigned after disruption of each ORF by a specific mutation and analysis of the accumulated intermediates. Carotenoid intermediates were identified by the absorption spectra of the colored components and by high pressure liquid chromatographic analysis. The six carotenoid genes are arranged in at least two operons. The gene coding for -carotene hydroxylase is transcribed in the opposite direction from that of the other carotenoid genes and overlaps with the gene for phytoene synthase.     

雨生红球藻八氢番茄红素合成酶基因的克隆及表征

雨生红球藻是一种单细胞绿藻,在多种逆境胁迫条件下能够大量合成并迅速积累虾青素,其积累量最高可达细胞干重的4%,从而成为目前最理想的天然虾青素合成工具.八氢番茄红素合成酶(PSY)是虾青素合成途径中第一个限速酶.分离了八氢番茄红素合成酶基因(psy)的全长cDNA及基因组DNA.其全长cDNA包括1200个碱基,编码400个氨基酸,基因组DNA包括5个外显子,4个内含子.系统发育分析结果显示,绿藻的八氢番茄红素合成酶基因形成一个进化枝,它们与高等植物的psy亲缘关系比较近.通过GenomeWalking的方法,分离了psy基因约1kb的5′侧翼序列.将含有TATA-box和CAAT-box的297bp的序列与LacZ报告基因构成嵌合的表达载体,用基因枪法转化雨生红球藻.lacZ的瞬间表达检测结果表明,这段上游序列能够驱动lacZ表达,具有启动子活性.     

Genetic engineering of the complete carotenoid pathway towards enhanced astaxanthin formation in Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous starting from a high-yield mutant

The yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is one of the rare organisms which can synthesize the commercially interesting carotenoid astaxanthin. However, astaxanthin yield in wild-type and also in classical mutants is still too low for an attractive bioprocess. Therefore, we combined classical mutagenesis with genetic engineering of the complete pathway covering improved precursor supply for carotenogenesis, enhanced metabolite flow into the pathway, and efficient conversion of intermediates into the desired end product astaxanthin. We also constructed new transformation plasmids for the stepwise expression of the genes of 3-hydroxymethyl-3-glutaryl coenzyme A reductase, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase, phytoene synthase/lycopene cyclase, and astaxanthin synthase. Starting from two mutants with a 15-fold higher astaxanthin, we obtained transformants with an additional 6-fold increase in the final step of pathway engineering. Thus, a maximum astaxanthin content of almost 9 mg per g dry weight was reached in shaking cultures. Under optimized fermenter conditions, astaxanthin production with these engineered transformants should be comparable to Haematococcus pluvialis, the leading commercial producer of natural astaxanthin.