The state of European research in tropical biology

Research institutions from the Global North have made significant contributions to the knowledge of tropical ecosystems, but contributions have varied greatly between countries. We show that European nations that share a language, cultural affinity, and/or retain social and political ties with tropical countries (e.g., those with an overseas history) make larger contributions to tropical biological research than countries without these ties. However, exceptions to this pattern demonstrate how science policy agendas can skew the capacity of countries to conduct biological research in the tropics. We conclude that some countries could make a far more important contribution to tropical biological knowledge, but for this to materialize, greater commitment by a country's scientific community is needed, along with better financial and intellectual support from its public administrations.     

Tropical biodiversity loss and people – A brief review

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Massive anthropogenic land use changes are taking place in the tropics. These changes have not only jeopardized native biodiversity but also people. Environmental apathy, corruption, poor natural resource governance, poverty and lack of conservation funding remain formidable challenges for conservation biologists. Any meaningful success in tropical conservation will, hence, need active collaboration by the civil society, biologists, social scientists, lawyers, funding agencies, national and multinational corporations, governments and non-governmental organizations. Concerted research efforts are urgently needed to understand the imperiled tropical biodiversity.     

Partnering for Greater Success: Local Stakeholders and Research in Tropical Biology and Conservation

Local communities are important stakeholders in resource management and conservation efforts, particularly in the developing world. Although evidence is mixed in suggesting that these resident stakeholders are optimal forest stewards, it is highly unlikely that large tracts of tropical forests will be conserved without engaging local people who depend on them daily for their livelihoods. Stakeholders, who reside in biodiverse ecosystems like tropical forests, are the largest direct users and ultimate decision-makers of forest fate, can be important investors in conservation, harbor local ecological knowledge that complements Western science and frequently have long-term legitimate claims on lands where they reside. Research partnerships with local stakeholders can increase research relevance, enhance knowledge exchange and result in greater conservation success. Different phases of the research cycle present distinct opportunities for partnership, with flexibility in timing, approaches and strategies depending on researcher and local stakeholder needs and interests. Despite being the last step in the research process, dissemination of results can be the best starting point for researchers interested in experimenting with local stakeholder engagement. Still, tropical biologists might not choose to partner with local people because of lack of institutional rewards, insufficient training in stakeholder engagement, insecure research infrastructure in community settings, and time and funding limitations. Although not appropriate in all cases and despite significant challenges, some biological scientists and research institutions have successfully engaged local stakeholders in the research process, proving mutually beneficial for investigators and local people alike and resulting in important innovations in tropical biology and conservation.     

Is there a special conservation biology?

Conservation biology is special to the extent that it fills useful roles in the scientific and conservation fields that are not being filled by practitioners of other disciplines. The emergence of the “new conservation biology” in the late 1970's and its blossoming in the 1980's and 1990's reflect, to a large degree, a failure of traditional academic ecology and the natural resource disciplines to address modern conservation problems adequately. Yet, to be successful conservation biology, as an interdisciplinary field, must build on the strengths of other disciplines both basic and applied. The new conservation biology grew out of concern over extinction of species, although the field has expanded to include issues about management of several levels of biological organization. I examine four controversial questions of importance to conservation biologists today: 1) are there any robust principles of conservation biology? 2) Is advocacy an appropriate activity of conservation biologists? 3) Are we educating conservation biologists properly? 4) Is conservation biology distinct from other biological and resource management disciplines? I answer three of these questions with a tentative “yes” and one (3) with a regretful “in most cases, no.” I see a need for broader Training for students of conservation biology, more emphasis on collecting basic field data, compelling applications of conservation biology to real problems, increased influence on policy, and expansion of the international scope of the discipline. If all these occur, conservation biology will by truly special.     

'Fish in hot water": the challenges facing fish and fisheries research in tropical estuaries

Tropical estuarine areas comprise small systems of a few km, larger estuaries, coastal lakes of hundreds of km 2 and vast shallow coastal waters that are contiguous with estuaries and have similar reduced salinities. Many of the world's great estuaries are in the tropics, e.g. the Amazon, Orinoco, Congo, Zambezi, Niger, Ganges and Mekong. The distribution of tropical and subtropical estuaries approximately follows that of mangroves. Like estuaries everywhere, they are a focus of human activity and are among the most exploited of ecosystems. In few other places do the activities of fishers, industrialists, shippers, farmers, conservationists, sports enthusiasts and biologists overlap to such an extent. Quite apart from the possible eects of all these activities, the fishes of subtropical and tropical estuaries already face one of the most rigorous of aquatic environments; but despite this, species diversity and productivity are high. Only in tropical estuaries are animals from such a wide range of taxa so closely associated, annelid worms, prawns, crocodiles, birds, ' hippos ', dolphins and of course fishes, all may form part of the overall community, often with functional ecological links. Unfortunately, the diculties of working in these often inhospitable environments, has meant that biologists have favoured projects in more appealing areas, such as coral reefs. While it is still true that most estuarine research is conducted in industrialized developed countries, nearly all of which are in cold or temperate regions, there has been a recent upsurge in tropical estuarine fish research. This is being driven by two imperatives, food security and the conservation and maintenance of biodiversity. Both these problems require knowledge of the ecology of tropical estuarine fishes, particularly their relationships with the environment and the extent to which they are dependent on estuaries or adjacent habitats for survival.     

High Bird Species Diversity in Structurally Heterogeneous Farmland in Western Kenya

Tropical ecosystems are globally important for bird diversity. In many tropical regions, land‐use intensification has caused conversion of natural forests into human‐modified habitats, such as secondary forests and heterogeneous agricultural landscapes. Despite previous research, the distribution of bird communities in these forest‐farmland mosaics is not well understood. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of bird diversity and community turnover in a human‐modified Kenyan landscape, we recorded bird communities at 20 sites covering the complete habitat gradient from forest (near natural forest, secondary forest) to farmland (subsistence farmland, sugarcane plantation) using point counts and distance sampling. Bird density and species richness were on average higher in farmland than in forest habitats. Within forest and farmland, bird density and species richness increased with vegetation structural diversity, i.e., were higher in near natural than in secondary forest and in subsistence farmland than in sugarcane plantations. Bird communities in forest and farmland habitats were very distinct and very few forest specialists occurred in farmland habitats. Moreover, insectivorous bird species declined in farmland habitats whereas carnivores and herbivores increased. Our study confirms that tropical farmlands can hardly accommodate forest specialist species. Contrary to most previous studies, our findings show that structurally rich tropical farmlands hold a surprisingly rich and distinct bird community that is threatened by conversion of subsistence farmland into sugarcane plantations. We conclude that conservation strategies in the tropics must go beyond rain forest protection and should integrate structurally heterogeneous agroecosystems into conservation plans that aim at maintaining the diverse bird communities of tropical forest‐farmland mosaics.     

Looking to the past to understand the future of tropical conservation: The importance of collecting basic data

Tropical biodiversity is under threat from a wide variety of anthropogenic stressors. Understanding the effect of major stressors—most notably land use change, over‐harvesting, emergence of novel pathogens, and climate change—is a major goal of tropical biology. However, to do so requires baseline data with which to compare present‐day patterns. Unfortunately, the tropics suffer from a lack of basic historical data; the few studies which have published such data have proven invaluable. In 1989, Fauth et al. described their studies of reptile and amphibian diversity and population demographics across tropical elevational gradients in Costa Rica. Since then, Fauth et al.'s basic ecological data have been widely used to document shifting patterns of species composition and abundance. Here, 30 years later, we argue that (a) collecting foundational ecological data remains incredibly important, especially in the tropics, and especially in those taxa which are generally understudied (e.g., reptiles and amphibians), (b) despite being one of the original goals of the 1989 study, the mechanisms driving biogeographical patterns of diversity remain unclear (both in the tropics and globally), and (c) that revisiting sites of historic biodiversity surveys—particularly those along gradients of environmental change—is incredibly important to our understanding of how tropical diversity is currently, and will continue to be, affected by activities in the Anthropocene. In its simplest terms, there has never been a time where the collection of basic data in the tropics has ever been more important.     

Bridging molecular genetics and participatory research: how access and benefit‐sharing stimulate interdisciplinary research for tropical biology and conservation

Molecular genetics research can benefit efforts to conserve the genetic diversity of tropical plant species. Clear and efficient procedures are needed to access DNA samples, while respecting tropical countries’ and local communities’ rights on genetic resource usage. The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit‐Sharing, which took effect in 2014, provides an opportunity to establish such procedures. However, scientists are concerned that its emphasis on monetary gains restricts research focused on scientific, societal, and environmental benefits. Despite much political and scientific debate, few concrete cases have demonstrated the practical functioning of the Nagoya Protocol. This paper describes the first application of the Protocol in Guatemala, where it was used to grant permission to a non‐commercial study on gene flow in mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) populations in the Maya Biosphere Reserve of Petén. On the basis of this study, we discuss five strategies to enhance the application of molecular genetics to conservation biology under the Nagoya Protocol: (1) generate short and standardized procedures; (2) enable science communication; (3) cultivate a common understanding between users, providers, and potential beneficiaries; (4) involve local research and practitioner organizations; and (5) integrate participatory research. Positive societal views on the application of molecular genetics to conservation biology generate further support for work in this discipline and promote adoption of research results for the conservation of genetic diversity of tropical plant species.     

Computational Biology and Bioinformatics in Nigeria

Over the past few decades, major advances in the field of molecular biology, coupled with advances in genomic technologies, have led to an explosive growth in the biological data generated by the scientific community. The critical need to process and analyze such a deluge of data and turn it into useful knowledge has caused bioinformatics to gain prominence and importance. Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary research area that applies techniques, methodologies, and tools in computer and information science to solve biological problems. In Nigeria, bioinformatics has recently played a vital role in the advancement of biological sciences. As a developing country, the importance of bioinformatics is rapidly gaining acceptance, and bioinformatics groups comprised of biologists, computer scientists, and computer engineers are being constituted at Nigerian universities and research institutes. In this article, we present an overview of bioinformatics education and research in Nigeria. We also discuss professional societies and academic and research institutions that play central roles in advancing the discipline in Nigeria. Finally, we propose strategies that can bolster bioinformatics education and support from policy makers in Nigeria, with potential positive implications for other developing countries.     

Hydraulic variability of tropical forests is largely independent of water availability

Tropical rainforest woody plants have been thought to have uniformly low resistance to hydraulic failure and to function near the edge of their hydraulic safety margin (HSM), making these ecosystems vulnerable to drought; however, this may not be the case. Using data collected at 30 tropical forest sites for three key traits associated with drought tolerance, we show that site-level hydraulic diversity of leaf turgor loss point, resistance to embolism (P₅₀), and HSMs is high across tropical forests and largely independent of water availability. Species with high HSMs (>1 MPa) and low P₅₀ values (< −2 MPa) are common across the wet and dry tropics. This high site-level hydraulic diversity, largely decoupled from water stress, could influence which species are favoured and become dominant under a drying climate. High hydraulic diversity could also make these ecosystems more resilient to variable rainfall regimes.     

Prospects for tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world

The future of tropical forest biodiversity depends more than ever on the effective management of human-modified landscapes, presenting a daunting challenge to conservation practitioners and land use managers. We provide a critical synthesis of the scientific insights that guide our understanding of patterns and processes underpinning forest biodiversity in the human-modified tropics, and present a conceptual framework that integrates a broad range of social and ecological factors that define and contextualize the possible future of tropical forest species. A growing body of research demonstrates that spatial and temporal patterns of biodiversity are the dynamic product of interacting historical and contemporary human and ecological processes. These processes vary radically in their relative importance within and among regions, and have effects that may take years to become fully manifest. Interpreting biodiversity research findings is frequently made difficult by constrained study designs, low congruence in species responses to disturbance, shifting baselines and an over-dependence on comparative inferences from a small number of well studied localities. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the potential prospects for biodiversity conservation can be explained by regional differences in biotic vulnerability and anthropogenic legacies, an ever-tighter coupling of human-ecological systems and the influence of global environmental change. These differences provide both challenges and opportunities for biodiversity conservation. Building upon our synthesis we outline a simple adaptive-landscape planning framework that can help guide a new research agenda to enhance biodiversity conservation prospects in the human-modified tropics.     

Ecosystem health through ecological restoration: barriers and opportunities

It is quite possible that no ecosystem on the planet is totally free of anthropogenic effects. Changes in the ozone layer, airborne transport of contaminants, and the persistence of pesticides and other chemicals, coupled with biological magnification, implies that even remote areas are probably not comparable to their condition before the industrial revolution and the recent explosion of human population. Theoretical ecologists have attempted to isolate their theories and studies from anthropogenic effects with varying degrees of success. However, finding ecosystems free of the effects of human society is becoming increasingly difficult, partly because of the global nature of pollution problems. Regrettably, many academicians are not educated in policy development as they work toward B.S., M.S., or Ph.D. degrees in the sciences. As a consequence, scientists are surprised to learn that a politically-appointed individual, experienced in law or some other non-scientific field, usually has final decision-making authority over policy that affects ecosystems. Scientists must understand that policy links science to social, economic, and legal societal values and needs. Finally, aside from the fact that policy or lack thereof now affects all of the planet's ecosystems, policy most likely will also determine which areas of research are funded. While some scientific studies could be carried out with personal funds, these are not particularly common in mainstream science and, therefore, obtaining financial support for ecosystem studies for the remainder of this century and probably early in the next will depend increasingly on societal policy other than purely science policy.     

第七届热带森林生态学学术研讨会述评

为持续加强热带森林生态学科技工作者之间的相互了解、促进学术交流与合作。2016年8月12—14日在海口举行了以"做实生态学基础,服务美丽热区建设"为主题的第七届热带森林生态学学术研讨会,有18位生态学领域的研究者做了学术报告,报告内容涵盖了热带森林生态服务功能评估、热带森林生态系统物质与能量的循环、环境对热带森林物质能量循环的影响、海南岛植物区系与海南岛的起源、热带植物种类资源调查分析、热带生态资源资产核算、热带人工林生态及科学发展、以及热带森林生态学野外观测技术等。     

Beyond Reserves: A Research Agenda for Conserving Biodiversity in Human-modified Tropical Landscapes

To truly understand the current status of tropical diversity and to forecast future trends, we need to increase emphasis on the study of biodiversity in rural landscapes that are actively managed or modified by people. We present an integrated landscape approach to promote research in human-modified landscapes that includes the effects of landscape structure and dynamics on conservation of biodiversity, provision of ecosystem services, and sustainability of rural livelihoods. We propose research priorities encompassing three major areas: biodiversity, human–environment interactions, and restoration ecology. We highlight key areas where we lack knowledge and where additional understanding is most urgent for promoting conservation and sustaining rural livelihoods. Finally, we recommend participatory and multidisciplinary approaches in research and management. Lasting conservation efforts demand new alliances among conservation biologists, agroecologists, agronomists, farmers, indigenous peoples, rural social movements, foresters, social scientists, and land managers to collaborate in research, co-design conservation programs and policies, and manage human-modified landscapes in ways that enhance biodiversity conservation and promote sustainable livelihoods.     

More topics from the tropics: additional thoughts to Mammides et al.

Most studies on tropical conservation questions are conducted by researchers of developed countries from the north. This geographic disconnection was recently criticised by Mammides et al. Here, we reflect on their findings and add further views from scientist’s and journal editor’s perspectives. We argue that journals are, a priori, most strongly interested in research questions and approaches that will likely increase their scientific impact and prestige. This is rarely compatible with publishing articles on questions with restricted global impact or based on single taxa. We question whether small changes in the editorial policy of international conservation journals will considerably improve the geographic diversity in key conservation publications. Rather, thematic scopes of the leading conservation journals should be modified, preferably in close collaboration with leading conservationists from the south. We are convinced that long-term investments in the tropics will create a stronger local scientific community, thus bolstering academic morale, and finally may lead to an increase in the submission and acceptance rate of articles written from scientists from these regions.     

从社区林业的观点探讨西双版纳刀耕火种农业生态系统的演化

1　引　言西双版纳地处我国西南边陲 ,东、南、西三面分别与缅甸、老挝接壤。由于地处热带最北缘 ,是热带与亚热带的交汇地带 ,动植物资源非常丰富 ,一直被誉为“动植物王国的明珠”。近 2× 1 0 4 ｋｍ2(全国总面积的 0 .2 % )分布了我国 2 5%的植物。但是 ,由于几十年不合理的政策和技术指导 ,1 950～ 1 985年期间森林覆盖率从 63%降到 34% ,其中包括了大面积的人工林如橡胶林和其它热带经济林 ,即有林地面积为 6 67× 1 0 5ｈａ ,其中保护区2 0× 1 0 5ｈａ,约占 1 /3。其他国有林 (包括国营橡胶林 )占 1 /3多 ,集体林和自留山占 1 /3多…     

Path-based systems to guide scientists in the maze of biological data sources

Fueled by novel technologies capable of producing massive amounts of data for a single experiment, scientists are faced with an explosion of information which must be rapidly analyzed and combined with other data to form hypotheses and create knowledge. Today, numerous biological questions can be answered without entering a wet lab. Scientific protocols designed to answer these questions can be run entirely on a computer. Biological resources are often complementary, focused on different objects and reflecting various experts' points of view. Exploiting the richness and diversity of these resources is crucial for scientists. However, with the increase of resources, scientists have to face the problem of selecting sources and tools when interpreting their data. In this paper, we analyze the way in which biologists express and implement scientific protocols, and we identify the requirements for a system which can guide scientists in constructing protocols to answer new biological questions. We present two such systems, BioNavigation and BioGuide dedicated to help scientists select resources by following suitable paths within the growing network of interconnected biological resources.     

The scientific development of the physiology of plants in the American tropics

This paper is a research and journalistic work that summarizes and synthesizes the scientific development of the physiology of plants in the American tropics, also known as the Neotropics. It contains the contributions of numerous biologists interested in the physiology of tropical plants. The fabulous structural and functional diversity of tropical forests is still the major driver of research in this field. Classical physiological work involving tropical plants, such as the discovery of C4 photosynthesis in sugarcane, is invoked to exemplify the historical and current importance of physiological research in the tropics, and its applications in agriculture, forestry and conservation. An historical background describing the early and more recent development of a tradition on the physiological study of tropical plants is followed by a summary of the research conducted on the physiology of tropical crops. Common areas of interest and influence between the fields of crop physiology and plant ecophysiology are identified and exemplified with problems on the environmental physiology of crops like coffee and cassava. The physiology of tropical forest plants is discussed in terms of its contributions to general plant physiological knowledge in areas such as photosynthetic metabolism and plant water relations. Despite the impressive technical advances achieved during the past decade, the importance of continuous development of appropriate instrumentation to study and measure the physiology of plants in situ is stressed. Although the basic metabolic processes that underlie the mechanisms of plant responses to the environment are probably highly conserved and qualitatively similar among tropical and temperate plants, it is also apparent that tropical plants exhibit metabolic peculiarities. These include aspects of photosynthetic metabolism, phloem transport physiology, sensitivity to low temperatures, reproduction, responses to climatic seasonality, and a large variety of biotic interactions. Old and new paradigms are examined in light of recent evidence and comparative studies, and the conceptual and technical advances needed to foster the development of tropical plant ecophysiology are identified.     

Bridging the Gap: How Can Information Access and Exchange Between Conservation Biologists and Field Practitioners be Improved for Better Conservation Outcomes?

It is widely accepted that there is a considerable gap between the science of conservation biology and the design and execution of biodiversity conservation projects in the field and science is failing to inform the practice of conservation. There are many reasons why this implementation gap exists. A high proportion of papers published in scientific journals by conservation biologists are seldom read outside of the academic world and there are few incentives for academics to convert their science into practice. In turn, field practitioners rarely document their field experiences and experiments in a manner that can meaningfully inform conservation scientists. Issues related to access to scientific literature, scientific relevance in multidisciplinary environments, donor expectations and a lack of critical analysis at all levels of conservation theory and practice are factors that exacerbate the divide. The contexts in which conservation biologists and field practitioners operate are also often highly dissimilar, and each has differing professional responsibilities and expectations that compromise the ability to learn from each other's expertise. Building on recent debate in the literature, and using case studies to illustrate the issues that characterize the divide, this paper draws on the authors' experiences of project management as well as academic research. We identify five key issues related to information exchange: access to scientific literature, levels of scientific literacy, lack of interdisciplinarity, questions of relevance and lack of sharing of conservation-related experiences and suggest new ways of working that could assist in bridging the gap between conservation scientists and field practitioners.     

Evolution of the organization for tropical studies

The Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS)/Organización para Estudios Tropicales (OET) has evolved in many ways since its founding in 1963 as a non-profit consortium offering graduate courses and facilitating research in tropical ecology in Costa Rica. By 2002, its international membership included about 65 institutions, including four from Costa Rica. It had developed three Costa Rican field stations (La Selva, Las Cruces, and Palo Verde) with excellent facilities for teaching and research, and it was constructing a new Costa Rican office at the University of Costa Rica. Combinations of internal and external pressures influenced OTS to develop in new directions in the 1980s and 1990s. It became more diversified and more concerned with applied science in its traditional areas of graduate education and research facilitation. The Organization also evolved into new niches: more applied biology, professional education, environmental education and policy, conservation efforts, and an expanded geographic distribution to other Latin American countries. OTS was composed of changing combinations of people (Boards, members, staff) with evolving and competing priorities for limited financial resources. External environmental changes also shaped OTS's evolution. New problems of increased tropical deforestation, the emergence of the biodiversity "crisis" and conservation biology, global climate change, and calls for sustainable development affected OTS constituents and funding priorities of governments and foundations. Both internal and external pressures have in some cases demanded for OTS to improve its relationship with: Costa Rican biologists and their institutions, the Costa Rican government, and Costa Ricans living around the three OTS field stations.