Composite indicator for the assessment of sustainability: The case of Cuban nature-based tourism destinations

This paper presents a methodology for building a composite indicator to evaluate the sustainability of nature-based tourism destinations. It combines Principal Component Analysis (PCA), the distance to a reference point, and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) with the aim of addressing some of the objections related to the aggregation procedure. The synthetic index obtained is based on a representative series of sub-indicators of the concept of sustainable tourist development as outlined by the World Tourism Organization (WTO). We apply it to evaluate Cuban nature-based tourism destinations. The results identify the strengths and weaknesses of destinations according to sustainability, and serve as a guideline for tourism planning in the future.     

Sustainable tourism indicators as planning tools in cultural destinations

Sustainable tourism is being consolidated at an international level as an approach that should be used to make all types of tourism more environmentally, socially and economically beneficial. A common practice is to use an indicator system for designing and implementing tourism models that focuses on the sustainability approach. Indicators are considered as useful tools that allow tourism managers to diagnose the situation of the destination, and to identify and evaluate issues that require addressing to improve the level of sustainability of the tourist activities. However, these indicator systems usually do not provide a practical guide to establish how to interpret information and how to integrate it into the decision-making. In this paper we present an indicator system to evaluate sustainable tourism at cultural destinations. Likewise, we suggest a method based on goal programming to construct composite indicators. The definition of the indicator system and composite indicators is completed providing guidelines that establish how to use these tools in tourism sector planning. Specifically, we propose three basic practical uses for these tools: the formulation of general action plans at a regional level, the definition of short-term strategies for destinations and the establishment of destination benchmarking practices. Each practical use is illustrated using the case of cultural tourism destinations in the Andalusia region (Spain).     

国家公园旅游可持续性管理评估指标体系——以西藏色林错-普若岗日冰川国家公园潜在建设区为例

当前，国内外对于国家公园旅游可持续性的定义及其评估指标尚未形成共识，已有的部分指标存在可操作性较弱、管理成本较高等问题，无法直接应用于中国国家公园旅游可持续性的管理与评估。从三条路径构建国家公园旅游可持续性管理评估指标体系：以实际需求为导向，分析国家公园所在区域对旅游可持续性管理评估指标的需求；以国际共识为导向，检验《全球可持续旅游目的地标准》在国家公园的适用性；以实践为导向，梳理世界主要国家及地区国家公园旅游可持续性的管理重点。以色林错-普若岗日冰川国家公园（简称"色-普国家公园"）潜在建设区为例，建立国家公园旅游可持续性管理评估指标体系。从经济、社会、文化、生态环境等方面明确了色-普国家公园潜在建设区对管理评估指标体系的需求。经过适用性判定，识别在色-普国家公园潜在建设区具有较强适用性的可持续旅游目的地评估指标。通过频次统计，从经济、社会、文化、生态环境、制度建设等方面遴选世界主要国家及地区国家公园旅游可持续性的重点管理指标。所建立的色-普国家公园潜在建设区旅游可持续性管理评估指标体系包括5个一级指标，15个二级指标，36个三级指标。在此基础上，建议逐步建立健全监测与统计体系，为管理评估指标体系的应用提供支撑。     

Assessing the sustainability of water companies: A synthetic indicator approach

Performance indicators (PIs) are essential in the benchmarking process used to rate and rank water companies. However, a set of individual PIs does not provide a holistic assessment of company performance from multiple perspectives. A multidimensional evaluation of the performance of water companies can be achieved by aggregating the PIs into a synthetic indicator. Although the concept of sustainability involves economic, environmental and social criteria, most of the previous studies have not considered these three dimensions simultaneously. This paper discusses a process of indicator aggregation using two approaches based on multi-criteria decision analysis to evaluate and compare the sustainability of water companies from a holistic perspective. A synthetic indicator embracing economic, environmental and social PIs was computed for a sample of 154 Portuguese water companies. Both methods yielded similar rankings of water company sustainability. The techniques and results presented in this paper may be utilized as a means of improving the benchmarking process in regulated water industries, as well as providing valuable contributions to decision-makers on the most efficient steps for improving the sustainability of urban water services.     

Weighting indicators of tourism sustainability: A critical note

Indicator weighting is an important issue in the measurement of tourism sustainability. Its importance derives from the fact that weights can have a significant effect on the rankings of analysed regions and subsequent policymaking. This is because relative indicator weights may significantly differ depending on the chosen weighting procedure. Relevant studies have however not paid particular attention to this issue so far, which is a gap this note aims to fill. An illustrative comparison of indicator weights from available studies further indicates potentially serious problems with some commonly used weighting procedures.     

旅游地生态效率测度的SBM-DEA模型及实证分析

旅游地是典型的人地关系相互作用的特殊区域,旅游地的生态效率研究是其制定与实施包容性、持续性发展政策与措施的基础。采用基于时间序列、包含非期望产出的SBM-DEA模型方法,构建旅游地生态效率测度模型及评价指标体系,以黄山风景区为例,利用1981—2014年的投入产出数据,测度旅游地复合系统的生态效率,分析其演化特征和阶段,并利用Tobit回归模型对其影响因素进行实证检验。结果表明:(1)34年来,黄山风景区旅游生态效率(综合效率)不断提升,且具较大发展潜力,在分解效率中,技术效率较高,规模效率次之,规模效率是决定综合效率的关键因素;(2)旅游生态效率的演化经历了初期低效、快速成长、成熟高效、下行风险四个阶段,不同阶段效率的特征不同,影响因素也存在差异;(3)旅游生态效率完成了由规模报酬递增向递减的过渡,资源要素的投入冗余已成为现阶段阻碍生态效率的进一步提高的关键因素;(4)旅游发展水平、产业结构和技术水平对生态效率产生显著的正向影响,投资水平产生显著的负向影响,以废弃物末端治理为表征的环保规制对生态效率的提升作用并不显著。文章最后提出,在山岳型风景区发展初期,应尽可能扩大资源要素投入规模,进入成熟阶段后,则转向逐渐控制投入规模,改善技术能力和资源配置能力,摒弃过度依靠资源消耗和环境污染的粗放式发展模式,走精细化、可持续的发展道路。     

国外旅游生态效率优化与管理

旅游生态效率概念采用定量化方法对旅游业经济、环境影响进行分析,成为旅游业可持续发展评价的重要工具。基于可持续理论的旅游生态效率优化管理方案不断涌现,相关利益主体应用较多的有环境管理系统、旅游生态标签、清洁生产理念、旅游生态效率中心、21世纪地方议程等。在旅游企业日常运营中积极推动生态效率优化管理,是贯彻绿色发展理念,提高目的地旅游经济、环境绩效的一种新思路。从可持续背景下旅游生态效率优化模型入手,系统化分析了国外旅游生态效率优化管理方案的内容与特征。其中,环境管理系统在目的地层面为旅游生态效率优化设计了一套评估管理流程,旅游生态标签为目的地生态效率水平提供了可视化标志符号,21世纪地方议程为旅游可持续发展提供一致性整合方案,清洁生产理念是一种基于生态效率优化的长期战略,旅游生态效率中心作为非营利性机构有利于中小企业获得较好的环境绩效表现。国外旅游生态效率优化管理方案特征明显、设计合理、管理科学,对我国目的地旅游生态效率优化提升具有重要的借鉴作用。     

Meta-performance evaluation of sustainability indicators

There are many different kinds of frameworks for evaluating environmental and sustainability performance at the organizational level (profit or not-for-profit, private or public), sectoral level (e.g. industry, transport, agriculture and tourism), and local, regional or country levels. Despite the diversity of methods and tools to measure sustainable development, indicators are one of the approaches most used. However, these tools do not usually include evaluation of the performance measurement instrument itself. The main objective of this research is to develop a conceptual framework to design and assess the effectiveness of the sustainability indicators themselves. To put the proposed tool into practice, a set of key good-practice factors and meta-performance evaluation indicators is proposed for adoption in a national case study—the national sustainable development indicators system, SIDS Portugal, and the usefulness of this methodology is demonstrated. This approach aims to evaluate how appropriate a set of sustainability indicators is and allow an evaluation of overall performance-monitoring activities and results. Stakeholder involvement is an essential component of the proposed framework. The tool developed could support continuous improvement in the performance of ongoing sustainability indicator initiatives, allowing greater guidance, objectivity and transparency in sustainability assessment processes.     

A methodology to assess the overall environmental pressure attributed to tourism areas: A combined approach for typical all-sized hotels in Chalkidiki,Greece

The present study aims to promote a methodological scheme to combine the main environmental pressures that can be attributed to tourism activity in order to characterize environmental sustainability for a defined area of concentrated tourism (DACT). The methodological framework is demonstrated in the prevalent tourism destination of Northern Greece, Chalkidiki. The approach puts forward the tourism environmental composite indicator (TECI) which is analytically defined, mathematically formulated and finally implemented for the case under study. TECI provides the basis for a comparative analysis for typical all-sized hotel categories in terms of their combined environmental pressure. Apart from energy and water consumption and waste generation, the presented scheme establishes links with life cycle assessment (LCA) in order to include estimations of carbon footprint (CO₂-eq) for hotels’ accommodation and transport, embedded in the TECI concept. A questionnaire for hoteliers was designed for the above purposes, and was used as input, among other data, to the overall methodological approach. The hotel managers gave their feedback via a face-to-face interview. Different normalized key performance indicators, i.e., pressure per m², pressure per room, pressure per guest night are combined in one single composite indicator. The relative significance of each environmental pressure considered is realized by embedding weighting factors in the TECI mathematical formulation. To demonstrate the methodology TECI provides a comparative analysis for typical all-sized hotel categories in Chalkidiki and concludes with characterizing the level of the environmental sustainability as very poor. The results provide a rich insight into the trade-offs/synergies between the main environmental pressures that can be attributed to tourism activity. The work presented adds up to the low number of respective implementations found in the literature, especially by combining the theoretical background of environmental indicators with LCA. Last but not least, the identification of environmental degradation “hot spots” is realized in order to provide insights for sustainable tourism practices to stakeholders of the tourism industry and highlight insights for strategic governance and policy modeling for the area under consideration.     

基于能值分析的生态脆弱区旅游业可持续发展研究——以甘南藏族自治州为例

旅游可持续发展现已成为世界性诉求,生态脆弱区旅游发展与生态环境保护的矛盾尤为突出,因此,评估生态脆弱区旅游可持续发展的态势对促进区域旅游经济和生态环境的协调发展具有重要意义。以甘南藏族自治州为研究区,采用旅游能值分析方法,基于调查数据、统计数据和能值转换数据,采用旅游输入能值、旅游输出能值、旅游环境负载率、旅游能值交换率和旅游可持续发展能值指数等评价模型,测度了2006—2015年甘南藏族自治州旅游可持续发展水平,旨在推进旅游可持续发展的研究方法的应用,为生态脆弱区旅游生态经济系统的综合评价及持续发展管理提供科学依据。研究表明:(1)2006—2015年,甘南藏族自治州旅游输入、旅游输出能值逐年增长,旅游餐饮、住宿能值占旅游输出能值的59%—82%,刚性需求能值输出占较高比例的能值结构不利于本区旅游业的可持续发展。(2)研究区旅游可持续发展处于不稳定的状态:2006—2008年旅游可持续发展能值指数由2.49降至0.94,大量不可更新资源的消耗造成环境压力较大,旅游系统处于不可持续状态;2008—2015年旅游可持续发展能值指数上升至7.85,为可持续发展状态,但2014—2015年旅游系统有效能值产出效率低,系统可持续性较差。     

生态系统可持续性的一个测度框架

生态系统可持续性是指生态系统持久地维持或支持其内在组份、组织结构和功能动态健康及其进化发展的潜在和显在能动性的总和.它是由生态整合性、自维持活力、自调节力和自组织力所构成的1个四元能力体系.生态系统持续性是由系统自身的组份、结构和功能动态来体现的.因此,对系统组份、结构和功能动态的辨识和评估是测度生态系统持续性的方法论基础.本文提出了1个由12项测度内容和30多类测度变量组成的生态系统可持续性的指标度量框架,反映了生态系统持续性的基本特点.从测度方法上看,基于指标的测度方法是生态系统持续性的基本测度方法,但它需要和整合测度方法相结合,以便提供一个完整的测度途径.     

From sustainability to well-being: Lessons learned from the use of sustainable development indicators at national and EU level

Indicators describing sustainability and, more recently, well-being have raised considerable interest throughout the world. Much conceptual and empirical research exists focusing on the criteria for sustainability and development of indicators, while relatively few studies examine the actual use and influence of indicators. Employing document analysis and interviews of key actors, we explore the use of sustainable development indicators at national and EU level and draw forth lessons relevant for topical discussion of the measurement of human well-being. We apply a conceptual model of three main types of indicator use: instrumental, conceptual, and political. The results indicate that the use of sustainability indicators is mainly confined to the ‘indicator circuit’ formed by indicator-developers themselves and actors obliged to use the indicators. The results suggest that direct instrumental use of indicators shows limited potential, whereas conceptual use is the key for enhanced indicator influence in the long term. Political use of indicators cannot be controlled by the indicator-developers.     

Application of PFGE to source tracking of faecal pollution in coastal recreation area: a case study in Aoshima Beach, Japan

Aims: The development of a microbial source tracking (MST) method is strongly desired to ensure public health and bacteriological safety in coastal recreation areas. We try to specify the source of faecal pollution by applying pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) to the study of the aquatic environment on Aoshima Beach, Japan. Methods and Results: Enterococcus faecium, an enterococcus, was used as a faecal indicator bacterium in this study. Enterococcus faecium strains were isolated and identified from each water sample collected from Aoshima Beach and five rivers (Oyodo, Kiyotake, Kaeda, Chifuku and Tsukunami Rivers) that might be potential sources of faecal pollution. Enterococcus faecium strains collected from water samples were analysed using PFGE. The similarities of all the PFGE types of the Ent. faecium strains were compared using dendrogram analysis. The PFGE types of the strains isolated from Aoshima Beach showed a high similarity to those of the strains isolated from the Oyodo River at a 0·9 similarity level. It was suggested that the Oyodo River is the source of faecal pollution on Aoshima Beach. Conclusions: The PFGE analysis using enterococci is a potential tool for the MST of faecal indicator bacteria that can be applied to the study of the coastal environment. Significance and Impact of the Study: This is one of the studies that PFGE was applied to the coastal environment. The approach using PFGE could estimate the river that is source of faecal pollution in Aoshima Beach. By applying PFGE as a tool of MST method, detailed information of faecal pollution in coastal area can be provided.     

“Turtle watching” conservation guidelines: green turtle (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chelonia mydas</Emphasis>) tourism in nearshore coastal environments

We propose a conservational opportunity for humans to ‘use’ the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in a non-consumptive manner. Although the concept of a social safe-minimum standard analysis, as applied to the sustainability of tourism-dependent turtle watching, has focused on beach-nesting habitats, other tourist activities like diving and snorkelling also occur in shallow coastal habitats frequented by juvenile and adult turtles. When integrated over time, at a specific location, such tourism activities may compromise turtle physiology in a manner that limits conservation goals for the species and hence the tourism. We identify research insights that can be used to achieve a creatively managed tourism—one that allows tourists to observe turtles in their natural coastal habitat in a manner that is commensurate with functional turtle conservation. We propose management options loosely based on whale-watching: i.e. voluntary and/or mandatory regulations based on home-range studies that identify localized temporal and spatial patterns of habitat use exhibited by turtles. We recommend temporally- and spatially-dynamic stratified-random-design tours that exclude critical local (small-scale) habitat and include less-critical habitat on a randomized rotational basis. Practical guidelines for tour operators that are founded on turtle habitat-occupancy patterns may ensure expanded life-history conservation measures and sustainable turtle-watching tourism.     

Tourism climate and thermal comfort in Sun Moon Lake,Taiwan

Bioclimate conditions at Sun Moon Lake, one of Taiwan’s most popular tourist destinations, are presented. Existing tourism-related climate is typically based on mean monthly conditions of air temperature and precipitation and excludes the thermal perception of tourists. This study presents a relatively more detailed analysis of tourism climate by using a modified thermal comfort range for both Taiwan and Western/Middle European conditions, presented by frequency analysis of 10-day intervals. Furthermore, an integrated approach (climate tourism information scheme) is applied to present the frequencies of each facet under particular criteria for each 10-day interval, generating a time-series of climate data with temporal resolution for tourists and tourism authorities.     

Regional sustainability assessment framework for integrated coastal zone management: Satoumi,ecosystem services approach,and inclusive wealth

This study proposes a novel regional sustainability assessment framework for integrated coastal zone management (ICZM). Various ICZM indicators have been developed, but their management insights are not always clear. Our framework integrates three separately developed approaches with an explicit reflection of stakeholders’ values: Satoumi (a Japanese concept of socio-ecological production landscapes, SEPLs), ecosystem services approach (ESA), and inclusive wealth (IW). We suggest that the integration of Satoumi, a uniquely Japanese concept, with the ESA and IW complements each other and increases the effectiveness of all three approaches when applied to ICZM and decision making. Satoumi describes the desired state of a coastal zone. The ESA translates Satoumi into IW and helps explain which changes to ecosystems contribute to the asset quality (i.e., shadow prices). As a sustainability indicator, IW differs from other ecological indicators because it comprises human, natural, and manufactured capital assets and incorporates shadow prices to weigh the contribution of each asset to the present value of social welfare. Shadow prices may capture the quality of capital assets in terms of how much people value them, and can therefore be a direct management target for realizing a desired coastal zone. We propose adding two sustainability criteria, desired state and strong sustainability, to the original IW to make it operational. The framework was tested in Japan’s Seto Inland Sea, and the results were analyzed in depth. Based on the outcomes, we discuss the insights for ICZM and future research. While Satoumi is a Japanese concept, the framework could be applied to other countries where similar SEPLs exist.     

Tourism sustainability in Tibet – Forward planning using a systems approach

The purpose of this study is to employ a nonlinear dynamic evaluation method to assess the tourism sustainability of Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), China, a new emerging tourism destination. The methodology draws on system dynamics and Back Propagation (BP) neural network. According to 7 setting principles, this study identifies 13 tourism sustainability indicators including conventional tourism income, tourism resources stock, pollution stock, etc., as well as specific residents’ tourism cognition, seasonal difference, accessibility, etc. Then a system dynamics model including the 13 indicators (variables) and other relevant auxiliary variables is established. Based on the numerical simulation, using a three layers BP neural network optimized by genetic algorithm and particle swarm algorithm, this study evaluates the future sustainability dynamically and compares the sustainability evolution from 2014 to 2050 under different development strategies. The research results not only provide information useful for the dynamic control and scientific management of the future sustainable tourism development, but also provide a systems approach to evaluate regional tourism sustainability.     

Trampling on coral reefs: tourism effects on harpacticoid copepods

Human trampling is a common type of disturbance associated with outdoor recreational activities in coastal ecosystems. In this study, the effect of trampling on the meiofaunal harpacticoid copepod assemblage inhabiting turfs on a coral reef was investigated. In Porto de Galinhas, northeastern Brazil, reef formations near the beach are one of the main touristic destinations in the country. To assess trampling impact, two areas were compared: a protected area and an area subject to intensive tourism. Densities of total Harpacticoida and of the most abundant harpacticoid species showed strong reductions in the trampled area. An analysis of covariance revealed that the loss of phytal habitat was not the main source of density reductions, showing that trampling affected the animals directly. In addition, multivariate analysis demonstrated differences in the structure of harpacticoid assemblages between areas. Of the 43 species identified, 12 were detected by the Indicator Species Analyses as being indicators of the protected or trampled areas. Moreover, species richness was reduced in the area open to tourism. At least 25 harpacticoids are new species for science, of these, 20 were more abundant or occurred only in the protected area, while five were more abundant or occurred only in the trampled area; thus, our results highlight the possibility of local extinction of still-unknown species as one of the potential consequences of trampling on coral reefs.     

基于AD-AS模型的海岸带生态系统综合承载力评估——以舟山海岸带为例

以舟山海岸带为研究区域,结合采样数据和社会经济发展数据,构建以社会因子、经济因子和自然因子为3个维度因子的海岸带生态系统综合承载力评估的指标体系。并参照经济学中的AD-AS模型,改进成综合总供给-综合总需求模型(SAD-SAS模型),根据生态系统中总供给与总需求之间的平衡关系,来计算舟山海岸带综合承载力量值,并尝试将海岸带综合承载力值的分类标准在原来的基础上分为5类,最后评价其所处的承载力水平。研究结果表明:舟山海岸带综合承载力在2005—2008年时处于微幅上升的阶段,年均增速为6.5%,在2008—2009年开始出现稍微的下降,下降幅度为3%;SAD-SAS模型作为生态学与经济学交叉的模型,为海岸带综合承载力评价提供了一种新思路。     

Sustainable planning for a coastal wetland system with an integrated ANP and DPSIR model for conflict resolution

Wetlands are important ecosystems on earth due to their capability of preserving water sources, mediating flooding, providing habitats for wildlife, and stabilizing coastlines. Wetlands play a critical role in regional sustainable development because of their ability to enhance resilience against extreme weather events. Maintaining coastal sustainability requires consideration of both the health of coastal wetlands and the resilience of urban systems while mitigating the conflict among social, economic, and environmental goals in land usages around coastal wetland environment. This study investigates a sensitive coastal wetland system located at central Taiwan for demonstration of a sustainable planning practice with an integrated model based on network topology in a socio-ecological context. There are two parts of the integrated model. Whereas a Driving force–Pressure–State–Impact–Response (DPSIR) model helps delineate the complex behaviors among different stakeholders by identifying various indicators, the analytic network process (ANP) quantifies the network topology of DPSIR. According to the survey via questionnaires answered by a group of experts, the DPSIR model is composed of 32 major indicators that can be networked by ANP. The results reveal that an effective ecological conservation depends on a series of mitigation actions, including river and habitat restorations, pollution control, green tourism, and integrated community development via better zoning policies.