High effectiveness of tailored flower strips in reducing pests and crop plant damage

Providing key resources to animals may enhance both their biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide. We examined the performance of annual flower strips targeted at the promotion of natural pest control in winter wheat. Flower strips were experimentally sown along 10 winter wheat fields across a gradient of landscape complexity (i.e. proportion non-crop area within 750 m around focal fields) and compared with 15 fields with wheat control strips. We found strong reductions in cereal leaf beetle (CLB) density (larvae: 40%; adults of the second generation: 53%) and plant damage caused by CLB (61%) in fields with flower strips compared with control fields. Natural enemies of CLB were strongly increased in flower strips and in part also in adjacent wheat fields. Flower strip effects on natural enemies, pests and crop damage were largely independent of landscape complexity (8–75% non-crop area). Our study demonstrates a high effectiveness of annual flower strips in promoting pest control, reducing CLB pest levels below the economic threshold. Hence, the studied flower strip offers a viable alternative to insecticides. This highlights the high potential of tailored agri-environment schemes to contribute to ecological intensification and may encourage more farmers to adopt such schemes.     

Utilisation of plant functional diversity in wildflower strips for the delivery of multiple agroecosystem services

Increased plant diversity in cropping systems can play an important role in agriculture by enhancing arthropod‐mediated ecosystem services, including biological control and pollination. However, there is limited research investigating the concurrent influence of plant functional diversity within cultivated systems on different arthropod functional groups, the provision of multiple ecosystem services, and crop yield. During a field experiment, repeated over 2 years, we measured the effect of increasing plant functional diversity on community structure of arthropod visitors, the abundance of multiple pests and induced crop damage, and fruit production in two varieties of tomato. Plant resources (floral and extra‐floral nectar and pollen) were included within experimental plots in four levels, with each level increasing the plant functional group richness, based on floral morphology and availability of resources, in a replacement series. The presence of sown flower mixtures in experimental plots was associated with increased abundance and diversity of natural enemy functional groups and an enhanced abundance of bees (Hymenoptera: Apiformes). However, we only detected relatively small variability in arthropod visitors among types of mixtures, and increased abundance of natural enemies did not translate into stronger pest suppression or reduced crop damage. Lepidoptera pest damage was significantly higher in plots adjacent to wildflower strips, an ecosystem disservice, but a significantly higher crop productivity was recorded from these plots. Our results provide evidence that inclusion of non‐crop plant resources in agroecosystems can improve the conservation of beneficial arthropods and may lead to increased crop productivity.     

Augmenting flower trait diversity in wildflower strips to optimise the conservation of arthropod functional groups for multiple agroecosystem services

Sown wildflower strips are increasingly being established in Europe for enhancing arthropod conservation and the provision of ecosystem services, including biotic pollination and natural pest control. Here we use floral traits to identify different plant functional effect groups. Floral resources were provided in four experimental levels characterised by a cumulatively increasing flower trait diversity and vegetation stand complexity. The first level consisted of a bare control strip, whilst in each subsequent level three wildflower species with different functional traits were added (Level 0: control; Level 1: three Apiaceae species; Level 2: three Apiaceae and three Fabaceae species; Level 3: three Apiaceae, three Fabaceae species, and Centaurea jacea (Asteraceae), Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae), Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)). Plots with sown wildflower strip mixtures were located adjacent to experimental plots of organically-managed tomato crop, which is attacked by multiple pests and partially relies on bees for fruit production, and hence dependent on the provision of pollination and pest control services. Results obtained here show that the inclusion of functionally diverse wildflower species was associated with an augmented availability of floral resources across time, and this increased the abundance of bees and anthocorids throughout the crop season. Several natural enemy groups, such as parasitoids, coccinelids and ground-dwelling predators, were not significantly enhanced by the inclusion of additional flower traits within the strips but the presence of flower resources was important to enhance their conservation in an arable cropping system.     

Field margin vegetation enhances biological control and crop damage suppression from multiple pests in organic tomato fields

Ephemeral cropping systems are characterized by frequent disturbances of ecological processes, which may compromise the conservation of plant and arthropod diversity and the ecosystem services they may provide. Conservation biological control practices include habitat manipulations that provide non‐pest resources and selectively enhance natural enemies' effectiveness. This study, conducted in eight commercial fields of organically grown tomato, compared the effectiveness of sown flower strips with semi‐natural margins in regulating natural enemy abundance, biocontrol, and crop damage. During repeated visits, the abundance of different arthropod groups was recorded. Crop surveys included measurement of aphid abundance, parasitism, and leaf and fruit damage from sap‐sucking and lepidopteran pests. Semi‐natural habitats were associated with higher vegetation diversity, but natural enemies were more strongly associated with sown strips during flowering. Sap‐sucking pests were always recorded in higher abundance in flower strips, but crop damage in the plots adjacent to these strips was lower, suggesting that these strips may act as a trap‐crop. The inclusion of floral supplements enhanced the parasitism rate of aphids in the crop, and reduced the rate of increase of lepidopteran‐caused foliar damage with time. Early in the growing season, semi‐natural strips showed significantly lower levels of crop damage and aphid counts, suggesting that these habitats may be important during early crop colonization by natural enemies. These results indicate that the inclusion of flower strips enhances the conservation of arthropod functional diversity in ephemeral crops, and that diverse mechanisms are important for controlling different pests. However, the efficacy of habitat manipulation is likely to be greater when it is complemented with the conservation of diverse semi‐natural vegetation in the pre‐existing field margin.     

Annual flower strips support pollinators and potentially enhance red clover seed yield

Ecological intensification provides opportunity to increase agricultural productivity while minimizing negative environmental impacts, by supporting ecosystem services such as crop pollination and biological pest control. For this we need to develop targeted management solutions that provide critical resources to service‐providing organisms at the right time and place. We tested whether annual strips of early flowering phacelia Phacelia tanacetifolia support pollinators and natural enemies of seed weevils Protapion spp., by attracting and offering nectar and pollen before the crop flowers. This was expected to increase yield of red clover Trifolium pratense seed. We monitored insect pollinators, pests, natural enemies and seed yields in a total of 50 clover fields along a landscape heterogeneity gradient, over 2 years and across two regions in southern Sweden. About half of the fields were sown with flower strips of 125–2,000 m². The clover fields were pollinated by 60% bumble bees Bombus spp. and 40% honey bees Apis mellifera. The clover seed yield was negatively associated with weevil density, but was unrelated to bee species richness and density. Flower strips enhanced bumble bees species richness in the clover fields, with the strongest influence in heterogeneous landscapes. There were few detectable differences between crop fields with and without flower strips. However, long‐tongued bumble bees were redistributed toward field interiors and during phacelia bloom honey bees toward field edges. Clover seed yield also increased with increasing size of the flower strip. We conclude that annual flower strips of early flower resources can support bumble bee species richness and, if sufficiently large, possibly also increase crop yields. However, clover seed yield was mainly limited by weevil infestation, which was not influenced by the annual flower strips. A future goal should be to design targeted measures for pest control.     

Proximity to wildflower strips did not boost crop pollination on small,diversified farms harboring diverse wild bees

The yield of many agricultural crops depends on pollination services provided by wild and managed bees, many of which are experiencing declines due to factors such as reductions in floral resources. Thus, improving pollinator habitat on farmlands using management strategies like planting wildflower strips is vital for wild bee conservation and sustainable crop pollination. Yet, few studies have examined whether and at what spatial scales wildflower strips enhance crop pollination and yields, and most research has been conducted in large-scale commercial agriculture. Therefore, we investigated the effects of wildflower strips on crop pollination on small, diversified farms (i.e., those growing a variety of crop species) where wild bee diversity and abundance is predicted to be comparatively high. Over three years, on four diversified farms in Montana USA, we tested the hypothesis that distance (20, 60, and 180 m) of crops from native perennial wildflower strips planted alongside crop fields affected wild bee visitation, pollination, and yields of squash and sunflower crop plants. We found that distance to wildflower strips did not affect bee visitation or pollination in crops. Squash yield was pollen-limited in the growing season prior to wildflower strip establishment, and in one of the two years after wildflower strip establishment, but proximity to wildflower strips did not influence the magnitude of pollen limitation. Sunflower seed production was not pollen-limited in any year. Our findings demonstrate that even on diverse farms with wildflower strips and a demonstrated high diversity of bees, some crops do not necessarily receive maximum pollination, regardless of distance from the wildflower strips. However, the value of wildflower strips for supporting wild bee diversity, and other ecological or economic benefits, needs consideration for a full understanding of this pollinator habitat management strategy.     

Synergistic interactions of ecosystem services: florivorous pest control boosts crop yield increase through insect pollination

Insect pollination and pest control are pivotal functions sustaining global food production. However, they have mostly been studied in isolation and how they interactively shape crop yield remains largely unexplored. Using controlled field experiments, we found strong synergistic effects of insect pollination and simulated pest control on yield quantity and quality. Their joint effect increased yield by 23%, with synergistic effects contributing 10%, while their single contributions were 7% and 6%, respectively. The potential economic benefit for a farmer from the synergistic effects (12%) was 1.8 times greater than their individual contributions (7% each). We show that the principal underlying mechanism was a pronounced pest-induced reduction in flower lifetime, resulting in a strong reduction in the number of pollinator visits a flower receives during its lifetime. Our findings highlight the importance of non-additive interactions among ecosystem services (ES) when valuating, mapping or predicting them and reveal fundamental implications for ecosystem management and policy aimed at maximizing ES for sustainable agriculture.     

Diminishing Returns from Higher Density Restoration Seedings Suggest Trade‐offs in Pollinator Seed Mixes

Native forbs have become a more central component of restoration programs, especially because of their role in supporting crop pollinators. This study evaluates the success of different native forb mixes and seeding rates using shared goals of restoration practitioners and agroecologists, namely percent native species cover, floral resources, native diversity, and cost‐effectiveness. At 6 sites with hedgerows adjacent to agricultural lands in California's Central Valley, we planted 3 native forb seed mixes at 3 seeding rates and monitored germination, percent cover, and floral resources for 2 to 3 years. We also evaluated the cost of the mixes based on seeding rates and original seed prices. More than mix type, relative seeding rate strongly affected germination, cover, and floral resource success. The relative benefits of seeding with more species diminished at higher seeding rates, especially when cost was considered. Cover increased significantly over the years but diversity declined sharply after the first year. Increased cover of target species was mainly due to the effect of 1 dominant species Grindelia camporum, common gumplant. We summarize data from a similar forb restoration study showing that the species that dominated in our mix‐and‐rate experimental sites also attracted the greatest diversity and abundance of pollinators. These findings highlight trade‐offs and balance‐points within restoration and pollination services goals. We offer suggestions on how to weigh those trade‐offs, given particular priorities and how native forb plantings can support combined goals of pollination services and restoration.     

Crop management affects pollinator attractiveness and visitation in oilseed rape

Ecological intensification of agriculture implies managing ecological processes to improve performance of agricultural systems. However, impacts on relevant ecological functions such as insect pollination from other crop management factors are poorly explored. Pest insects and crop resources such as water availability can directly affect crop yields, but it is unknown if there are indirect effects through effects on insect pollination. With a factorial experiment, we examined how irrigation and control of pollen beetles affected crop attractiveness and pollinator visitation in an open-pollinated spring oilseed rape cultivar. We studied how irrigation and pest control modified the production of flowers and nectar in oilseed rape, and if this in turn affected the flower-visitation of honey bees and bumble bees. Pest control increased the number of oilseed rape flowers by 69%, and the amount of nectar per flower with 36%, but for the latter only in non-irrigated plots. Furthermore, we found higher pollinator densities in plots with reduced pollen beetle densities. Pest control also reduced the number of non-legitimate flower visits, suggesting higher pollination efficiency in plots with reduced pollen beetle densities. We show that crop management affects the value of mass-flowering crops as a resource for pollinating insects. Development of pest control tools that are harmless to pollinators could increase the value of flowering crops as food resources for pollinating insects.     

Enhancing Soil Organic Matter as a Route to the Ecological Intensification of European Arable Systems

Soil organic matter (SOM) is declining in most agricultural ecosystems, impacting multiple ecosystem services including erosion and flood prevention, climate and greenhouse gas regulation as well as other services that underpin crop production, such as nutrient cycling and pest control. Ecological intensification aims to enhance crop productivity by including regulating and supporting ecosystem service management into agricultural practices. We investigate the potential for increased SOM to support the ecological intensification of arable systems by reducing the need for nitrogen fertiliser application and pest control. Using a large-scale European field trial implemented across 84 fields in 5 countries, we tested whether increased SOM (using soil organic carbon as a proxy) helps recover yield in the absence of conventional nitrogen fertiliser and whether this also supports crops less favourable to key aphid pests. Greater SOM increased yield by 10%, but did not offset nitrogen fertiliser application entirely, which improved yield by 30%. Crop pest responses depended on species: Metopolophium dirhodum were more abundant in fertilised plots with high crop biomass, and although population growth rates of Sitobion avenae were enhanced by nitrogen fertiliser application in a cage trial, field populations were not affected. We conclude that under increased SOM and reduced fertiliser application, pest pressure can be reduced, while partially compensating for yield deficits linked to fertiliser reduction. If the benefits of reduced fertiliser application and increased SOM are considered in a wider environmental context, then a yield cost may become acceptable. Maintaining or increasing SOM is critical for achieving ecological intensification of European cereal production.     

Flowering alyssum (Lobularia maritima) promote arthropod diversity and biological control of Myzus persicae

Radish, Raphanus sativus is an important vegetable crop worldwide. It is the second most important vegetable after cabbage and cauliflower in winter (January to March) in Nepal. This crop is damaged by various herbivores such as the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, the soybean hairy caterpillar, Spilarctia casigneta and the flea beetle, Monolepta signata. Prophylactic pesticide use is a part of the common pest management practice in Nepal. The candidate floral plant, alyssum, Lobularia maritima, was deployed in a radish field to improve pest biological control. Beneficial arthropods trapped such as Syrphidae, Coccinellidae, Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Formicidae, Lycosidae, Apidae and Ichneumonidae were significantly more abundant in flowering alyssum plots than the control (non-flowering) plots. Flowering alyssum in radish fields significantly increases the population of observed syrphids (larva and adult). Similarly observed ladybirds was slightly higher in flowering plot compared with control plot however that was not significant. These beneficial predators potentially increase the biological control of M. persicae. These results provide evidence of the alyssum’s ability to increase the abundance of predators and support the suppression of M. persicae in radishes. This study is useful in developing an integrated pest management protocol by integrating flowering strips in radish fields. Habitat manipulation in radish fields by maintaining flower strips can improve pest biological control and support the provision of multiple ecosystem services that restore diminished ecosystem functions in agriculture.     

Combined effects of agrochemicals and ecosystem services on crop yield across Europe

Simultaneously enhancing ecosystem services provided by biodiversity below and above ground is recommended to reduce dependence on chemical pesticides and mineral fertilisers in agriculture. However, consequences for crop yield have been poorly evaluated. Above ground, increased landscape complexity is assumed to enhance biological pest control, whereas below ground, soil organic carbon is a proxy for several yield‐supporting services. In a field experiment replicated in 114 fields across Europe, we found that fertilisation had the strongest positive effect on yield, but hindered simultaneous harnessing of below‐ and above‐ground ecosystem services. We furthermore show that enhancing natural enemies and pest control through increasing landscape complexity can prove disappointing in fields with low soil services or in intensively cropped regions. Thus, understanding ecological interdependences between land use, ecosystem services and yield is necessary to promote more environmentally friendly farming by identifying situations where ecosystem services are maximised and agrochemical inputs can be reduced.     

Complementary ecosystem services provided by pest predators and pollinators increase quantity and quality of coffee yields

Wild animals substantially support crop production by providing ecosystem services, such as pollination and natural pest control. However, the strengths of synergies between ecosystem services and their dependencies on land-use management are largely unknown. Here, we took an experimental approach to test the impact of land-use intensification on both individual and combined pollination and pest control services in coffee production systems at Mount Kilimanjaro. We established a full-factorial pollinator and vertebrate exclosure experiment along a land-use gradient from traditional homegardens (agroforestry systems), shaded coffee plantations to sun coffee plantations (total sample size = 180 coffee bushes). The exclusion of vertebrates led to a reduction in fruit set of ca 9%. Pollinators did not affect fruit set, but significantly increased fruit weight of coffee by an average of 7.4%. We found no significant decline of these ecosystem services along the land-use gradient. Pest control and pollination service were thus complementary, contributing to coffee production by affecting the quantity and quality of a major tropical cash crop across different coffee production systems at Mount Kilimanjaro.     

Pollinator population size and pollination ecosystem service responses to enhancing floral and nesting resources

Modeling pollination ecosystem services requires a spatially explicit, process‐based approach because they depend on both the behavioral responses of pollinators to the amount and spatial arrangement of habitat and on the within‐ and between‐season dynamics of pollinator populations in response to land use. We describe a novel pollinator model predicting flower visitation rates by wild central‐place foragers (e.g., nesting bees) in spatially explicit landscapes. The model goes beyond existing approaches by: (1) integrating preferential use of more rewarding floral and nesting resources; (2) considering population growth over time; (3) allowing different dispersal distances for workers and reproductives; (4) providing visitation rates for use in crop pollination models. We use the model to estimate the effect of establishing grassy field margins offering nesting resources and a low quantity of flower resources, and/or late‐flowering flower strips offering no nesting resources but abundant flowers, on bumble bee populations and visitation rates to flowers in landscapes that differ in amounts of linear seminatural habitats and early mass‐flowering crops. Flower strips were three times more effective in increasing pollinator populations and visitation rates than field margins, and this effect increased over time. Late‐blooming flower strips increased early‐season visitation rates, but decreased visitation rates in other late‐season flowers. Increases in population size over time in response to flower strips and amounts of linear seminatural habitats reduced this apparent competition for pollinators. Our spatially explicit, process‐based model generates emergent patterns reflecting empirical observations, such that adding flower resources may have contrasting short‐ and long‐term effects due to apparent competition for pollinators and pollinator population size increase. It allows exploring these effects and comparing effect sizes in ways not possible with other existing models. Future applications include species comparisons, analysis of the sensitivity of predictions to life‐history traits, as well as large‐scale management intervention and policy assessment.     

Interaction complexity matters: disentangling services and disservices of ant communities driving yield in tropical agroecosystems

Owing to complex direct and indirect effects, impacts of higher trophic levels on plants is poorly understood. In tropical agroecosystems, ants interact with crop mutualists and antagonists, but little is known about how this integrates into the final ecosystem service, crop yield. We combined ant exclusion and introduction of invasive and native-dominant species in cacao agroecosystems to test whether (i) ant exclusion reduces yield, (ii) dominant species maximize certain intermediate ecosystem services (e.g. control of specific pests) rather than yield, which depends on several, cascading intermediate services and (iii) even, species-rich ant communities result in highest yields. Ants provided services, including reduced leaf herbivory and fruit pest damage and indirect pollination facilitation, but also disservices, such as increased mealybug density, phytopathogen dissemination and indirect pest damage enhancement. Yields were highest with unmanipulated, species-rich, even communities, whereas ant exclusion decreased yield by 27%. Introduction of an invasive-dominant ant decreased species density and evenness and resulted in 34% lower yields, whereas introduction of a non-invasive-dominant species resulted in similar species density and yields as in the unmanipulated control. Species traits and ant community structure affect services and disservices for agriculture in surprisingly complex ways, with species-rich and even communities promoting highest yield.     

Humans,bees, and pollination services in the city: the case of Chicago,IL (USA)

Despite the global trend in urbanization, little is known about patterns of biodiversity or provisioning of ecosystem services in urban areas. Bee communities and the pollination services they provide are important in cities, both for small-scale urban agriculture and native gardens. To better understand this important ecological issue, we examined bee communities, their response to novel floral resources, and their potential to provide pollination services in 25 neighborhoods across Chicago, IL (USA). In these neighborhoods, we evaluated how local floral resources, socioeconomic factors, and surrounding land cover affected abundance, richness, and community composition of bees active in summer. We also quantified species-specific body pollen loads and visitation frequencies to potted flowering purple coneflower plants (Echinacea purpurea) to estimate potential pollination services in each neighborhood. We documented 37 bee species and 79 flowering plant genera across all neighborhoods, with 8 bee species and 14 flowering plant genera observed on average along each neighborhood block. We found that both bee abundance and richness increased in neighborhoods with higher human population density, as did visitation to purple coneflower flower heads. In more densely populated neighborhoods, bee communities shifted to a suite of species that carry more pollen and are more active pollinators in this system, including the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and native species such as Agapostemon virescens. More densely populated neighborhoods also had a greater diversity of flowering plants, suggesting that the positive relationship between people and bees was mediated by the effect of people on floral resources. Other environmental variables that were important for bee communities included the amount of grass/herbaceous cover and solar radiation in the surrounding area. Our results indicate that bee communities and pollination services can be maintained in dense urban neighborhoods with single-family and multi-family homes, as long as those neighborhoods contain diverse and abundant floral resources.     

Pollinator sharing between mass-flowering oilseed rape and co-flowering wild plants: implications for wild plant pollination

Pollinating insects are not only important in wild plant pollination, but also in the production of a large number of crops. Oilseed rape production is increasing globally due to demands for biofuels which may have impacts on pollinating insects which visit the crop and on the pollination services delivered to co-flowering wild plants. In this study, we tested (1) the degree of pollinator sharing between oilseed rape and native wild plants in field margins and hedgerows and (2) the effects of oilseed rape on the quality of pollination service delivered to these wild plants. We found large overlap between flower visitors of wild plants and oilseed rape, but the composition of species overlap differed with respect to each wild plant species. Nearly all individual visitors caught on both the crop and foraging on wild species carried crop pollen, but more than half the insects also carried pollen from wild plants. However, very little oilseed rape pollen was deposited on wild plant stigmas. This shows that (1) oilseed rape overlaps in pollinator niche with most co-flowering wild plants, and (2) crop pollen deposition on wild plant stigmas is low which may indicate that it is unlikely to cause reductions in seed set of wild plants, although this was not measured here. Furthermore, wild plants in field margins and hedgerows are important sources of alternative forage for pollinating insects even when a crop is mass flowering, and we suggest maintenance and augmentation of field margins and hedgerows to provide alternative forage for pollinator conservation to continue provision of pollination services to both crops and wild plants.     

Manure application improves both bumblebee flower visitation and crop yield in intensive farmland

Pollinators provide vital ecosystem services across croplands, yet simultaneously they are influenced by agricultural practices. Nevertheless, only a few studies have explored the potential interactions between soil fertilisers and pollinators. The aim of the current study, which was carried out in Poland in 2015, was to investigate the effect of different fertiliser regimes on bumblebee flower visitation rate and seed yield in crops of the field bean (Vicia faba L.). Our results show that the number of bumblebee visits may be affected by the choice of crop fertiliser. We detected differences in bumblebee number between fertiliser treatments. The organic fertiliser (manure) treatment resulted in the highest bumblebee visitation, although this did not differ significantly from NP, no fertiliser and NK treatments. On the other hand, we observed lower numbers of bumblebees on field bean plots treated with N, NPK, and PK inorganic fertilisers. Manure application also boosted plant height and resulted in a high yield similar to other balanced fertilisers (NPK and PK). Therefore, manure was the only fertiliser that resulted in a high field bean yield and at the same time attracted the main pollinators of the crop. Thus, we suggest that appropriate management practices influence both plant growth and also pollination services and we show that modern agriculture can make compromise between effectiveness and nature conservation.     

Influence of native flowering plant strips on natural enemies and herbivores in adjacent blueberry fields

Conservation plantings of native wildflowers were established adjacent to highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) fields to test the hypothesis that provision of resources for natural enemies increases their abundance in adjacent crop fields without increasing the abundance of pest insects. For two growing seasons, natural enemies and herbivorous insects were sampled in fields with flowering borders and in control fields where growers maintained standard mown grass perimeters. Insects were categorized according to their trophic level and their potential pest status, and their abundance was compared between years and between treatments. Syrphid flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) were significantly more abundant in fields with conservation strips, as were plant bugs (Hemiptera: Miridae), thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), and hoppers (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha). Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae), thrips, fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae), and pirate bugs (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) decreased significantly in abundance from 2007 to 2008. Beneficial insect abundance in crop fields increased in the latter half of the season in both years and this increase was more pronounced in fields adjacent to conservation plantings. We discuss the implications of these findings for pest management and conservation of biodiversity in farmland.     

Ecological intensification to mitigate impacts of conventional intensive land use on pollinators and pollination

Worldwide, human appropriation of ecosystems is disrupting plant–pollinator communities and pollination function through habitat conversion and landscape homogenisation. Conversion to agriculture is destroying and degrading semi‐natural ecosystems while conventional land‐use intensification (e.g. industrial management of large‐scale monocultures with high chemical inputs) homogenises landscape structure and quality. Together, these anthropogenic processes reduce the connectivity of populations and erode floral and nesting resources to undermine pollinator abundance and diversity, and ultimately pollination services. Ecological intensification of agriculture represents a strategic alternative to ameliorate these drivers of pollinator decline while supporting sustainable food production, by promoting biodiversity beneficial to agricultural production through management practices such as intercropping, crop rotations, farm‐level diversification and reduced agrochemical use. We critically evaluate its potential to address and reverse the land use and management trends currently degrading pollinator communities and potentially causing widespread pollination deficits. We find that many of the practices that constitute ecological intensification can contribute to mitigating the drivers of pollinator decline. Our findings support ecological intensification as a solution to pollinator declines, and we discuss ways to promote it in agricultural policy and practice.