Neogene phasianids (Aves: Phasianidae) of Central Asia: 2. Genera <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perdix,Plioperdix</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bantamyx</Emphasis>

The phasianid genera Perdix, Plioperdix, and Bantamyx from the Neogene of Mongolia and Transbaikalia are reviewed. Based on published data and new material, the diagnoses of Late Pliocene Perdix margaritae Kurochkin and Plioperdix ponticus (Tugarinov) and Late Miocene Bantamyx georgicus Kurochkin are emended. It is shown that a tarsometatarsus from the Upper Miocene of the Pavlodar locality belongs to the genus Palaeoperdix rather than Palaeortyx, as was proposed in the previous studies. Small Neogene Asian phasianids are compared in detail with Neogene taxa from Europe and extant genera.     

Caprinae (Bovidae,Artiodactyla, Mammalia) from the Neogene of Mongolia

Gobiocerus mongolicus Sokolov, 1952, Turcocerus kekemaidengensis Ye Jie et al., 1999; and Hypsodontus sp. were recorded in Miocene deposits of the Valley of Lakes (MN4-MN8) and Oioceros atropatenes (Rodler et Weithofer, 1890) occurred in the Mio-Pliocene (MN11-MN20) of northwestern Mongolia. Gobiocerus, Turcocerus, and Hypsodontus represent the same evolutionary lineage. Thus, Caprinae existed in Central Asia in the Early Miocene. They diverged from the Bovidae at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary. The presence of early bovids in this region suggests that this group could have appeared in Central Asia.     

Neogene phasianids (Aves: Phasianidae) of Central Asia: 1. Genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tologuica</Emphasis> gen. nov.

A new genus, Tologuica, with two species (T. aurorae sp. nov. and T. karhui sp. nov.), from the Middle Miocene of the Sharga locality (western Mongolia) is described. The new genus shares some characters with the extinct genera Palaeocryptonyx, Palaeortyx, and Plioperdix and with extant Coturnix. The foot structure suggests that Tologuica resembled in ecology the European genus Palaeortyx and was probably adapted to an arboreal mode of life, in contrast to the terrestrial Coturnix and Plioperdix.     

Revision of non-passeriform birds from Polgárdi (Hungary,Upper Miocene): 3. Neoaves

A taxonomic revision of Upper Miocene Neoaves from Polgárdi locality is summarized. Rallicrex polgardiensis is transferred to the genus Rallus. The taxonomic position of R. kolozsvarensis is discussed. Porzana estramosi veterior and P. kretzoii are transferred to the genus Zapornia former is ranked as species. It is shown that the material referred to Egretta polgardiensis, Surnia robusta, and Otis kalmani actually belong to the fossil barn owl Tyto campiterrae. The genera Cuculus and Tetrao are identified incorrectly and several other taxa cannot be identified to genus. A fragmentary carpometacarpus originally referred to as Gallinago veterior actually belongs to Glareolidae. A complete list of revised non-passeriform taxa from Polgárdi is provided and the composition of the avifauna is discussed. The absence of taxa shared with approximately contemporaneous avian assemblage from the Hyargas-Nuur 2 locality in eastern Mongolia is evidence that at least two separate zoogeographical units of temperate avifaunas existed in the Late Miocene of Eurasia.     

Vertebrates from the Pontian of the Shkodova Gora locality (Northwestern Black Sea Region,Upper Miocene)

Remains of fishes, turtles, birds, and mammals are described from the Upper Miocene (MN13) Shkodova Gora locality (Ukraine, Odessa Region), the only representative locality of Pontian large vertebrates in the northwestern Black Sea Region. Asiatic fish and avian taxa are recorded for the first time in the Upper Miocene of Europe. The Shkodova Gora ichthyofauna includes eight freshwater fish species (belonging to Acipenseridae, Cyprinidae, Siluridae, and Percidae). Taxa that have previously been recorded only in Western Siberia (Abramis bliccoides, Perca lepidopoma), eastern Kazakhstan, and the Altai Mountain (Rutilus tungurukensis) are revealed. Acipenser gueldenstaedtii is recorded for the first time in the Upper Miocene of Eastern Europe. The occurrence of the genus Ctenopharyngodon, a member of the Chinese plain faunal assemblage is of great interest. The Shkodova Gora avifauna (seven taxa) is mostly composed of waterfowl, including Phalacrocorax mongoliensis, which has previously been known only from the Lower Pliocene of Mongolia. The finding of Proanser major is the youngest record of this species in the fossil record. Mammals of the Shkodova Gora association include a hare resembling Trischizolagus dumitrescuae, Palaeoryx cf. pallasi, and Hipparion cf. moldavicum, which have not been mentioned among Pontian taxa of the northern Black Sea Region. Pontian paleolandscapes in the area of the Shkodova Gora locality are reconstructed.     

Revision of non-Passeriform birds from Polgárdi (Hungary,Late Miocene): 1. Anseriformes

Polgárdi is a series of Late Miocene localities in central Hungary, which have yielded one of the richest Miocene avifaunas. The taxonomic composition of the waterfowl (Anseriformes) from Polgárdi is revised. As a result of revision, Anas denesi Kessler, 2013 is transferred to the genus Aythya. This species has a combination of primitive and advanced morphological characters, which do not come in conflict with the concept of gradual formation of morphological features of the modern type in various lineages of Aythya. Another small duck from Polgárdi referred to as Anas albae Jánossy, 1979 is only possible to be identified as Mergini gen. indet.     

The Oldest Cranium of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sinomastodon</Emphasis> (Proboscidea,Gomphotheriidae), Discovered in the Uppermost Miocene of Southwestern China: Implications for the Origin and Migration of This Taxon

The origin of the Old World brevirostrine gomphotheriid taxon Sinomastodon has been debated intensively. The discovery of the oldest known Sinomastodon cranium, reported herein, supports its endemic origin and contradicts the prevalent theory of its North America origin. The new cranium was discovered from the Shuitangba locality, southwestern China, and is dated at about 6.5–6.0 Ma, corresponding to the latest Miocene. The new specimen shows distinct characters from the other species of Sinomastodon and was therefore named Sinomastodon praeintermedius, sp. nov. Newly discovered, isolated Sinomastodon-like teeth from the upper Miocene to the lower Pleistocene of southwestern China and Southeast Asia indicate a long evolution of Sinomastodon endemically. Remains of this species are frequently accompanied by those of stegodontid species. These two groups may have had a similar migration route, invading northern China and Japan during the latest Miocene, and retreating or becoming extinct from the Palearctic realm by the end of the Pliocene. The migrations of proboscideans may have been sparked by major paleoenviromental changes, i.e., the strengthened summer monsoon beginning in the late Miocene (~7–8 Ma) and global cooling due to the expansion of ice sheets from the middle Pliocene to the early Pleistocene. The new finding reveals a close relationship of the early Pliocene fauna of northern China and the latest Miocene fauna of southwestern China, and thus provides novel insight into the origin and components of Pliocene fauna in northern China.     

Diversification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caiophora</Emphasis> (Loasaceae subfam. Loasoideae) during the uplift of the Central Andes

Andean orogeny and the ecological changes that followed promoted diversification in plant and animal lineages since the Early Miocene. The angiosperm genus Caiophora (Loasaceae, subfam. Loasoideae) comprises around 50 species that are endemic to South America. These are distributed from southern Ecuador to Central Chile and Argentina. Bee pollination and distribution at low-intermediate elevations probably represent the ancestral condition in the lineage that includes Caiophora and its allied genera. The majority of Caiophora species grow at high elevations in the Andes, where some depend on vertebrate pollination. Previous studies did not resolve phylogenetic relationships within Caiophora, which precluded the dating of the origin and divergence of this group. We used markers of one nuclear (ITS) and one plastid region (trnS ^GCU -trnG ^UUC ) to solve phylogenetic relationships among 19 Caiophora species (including different accessions). We also included 10 species of the allied genera Blumenbachia and Loasa. Aosa rostrata and Xylopodia klaprothioides were used as outgroups. Phylogenetic reconstruction strongly supports the monophyly of Caiophora, and although several clades within this genus are poorly supported, our study yielded a better infra-generic resolution than previous studies. The origin of Caiophora is dated to the Early-Middle Miocene and can be related to the uplift of the Cordilleras Frontal and Principal and to Pacific marine transgressions. According to our estimations, Caiophora began to diversify during the Middle-Late Miocene and this unfolding proceeded eastwards during the Pliocene and the Pleistocene, in parallel to the uplift of different Andean mountain ranges.     

New fossil insects from the Anisian (Lower to Middle Muschelkalk) from the Central European Basin (Germany and The Netherlands)

The Palaeozoic–Mesozoic transition is characterized not only by the most massive Phanerozoic mass extinction at the end of the Permian period, but also its extensive aftermath and a prolonged period of major biotal recovery during the succeeding Middle to Late Triassic. Particularly, Anisian insect species from units of the Lower to Middle Muschelkalk from the Central European Basin are rare. The specimens described here originated from the Anisian Wellenkalk facies (Lower Muschelkalk), Vossenveld Formation of the Winterswijk quarry, The Netherlands, and from the orbicularis Member (lowermost Middle Muschelkalk, Anisian) of Esperstedt near Querfurt (Saxony-Anhalt). Thus, the described insect remains from Winterwijk and Esperstedt expand our knowledge about Middle Triassic terrestrial arthropod communities and their palaeodiversity. A new species of Chauliodites (C. esperstedti sp. nov) is introduced.     

The origin and taxonomic position of the Crimean endemic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrodiaetus pjushtchi</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera,Lycaenidae) based on the data on karyology,ecology, and molecular phylogenetics

The geographic ranges, karyotypes, ecological preferences, and mitochondrial DNA polymorphism were analyzed to reveal the origin and taxonomic position of Agrodiaetus pljushtchi and related species of A. damone species group. According to the data obtained, the common ancestor of these species originated in Asia Minor in Late Pliocene, 1.2–1.8 million years ago. In Early Pleistocene (0.8–1.2 million years ago), a representative of this group migrated into the Crimea and gave rise to A. pljushtchi. Another branch originated from the common ancestor, which migrated into Central Asia and Siberia and gave rise to a variety of partly sympatric taxa. Recently, representatives of the Central Asian — Siberian lineage occupied Eastern Europe and approached the area of A. pljushtchi but did not overlap with it. The karyotype n = 67 is an apomorphy of the A. damone species complex. However, this karyotype is not species-specific and cannot be used to differentiate taxa within the complex. The similarity of karyotypes is thus not sufficient to consider A. pljushtchi and A. damone as conspecific taxa. The natural history data support the isolated position of A. pljushtchi, and phylogenetic analysis shows that A. pljushtchi and A. damone are not closely related.     

Time-calibrated molecular phylogeny reveals a Miocene–Pliocene diversification in the Amazon miniature killifish genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fluviphylax</Emphasis> (Cyprinodontiformes: Cyprinodontoidei)

Species of Fluviphylax are widely distributed over the Amazon and Orinoco river drainages and are among the smallest fish in the neotropics, inhabiting areas near the margin of slow-flowing clear and black water streams and lakes. Here, we present the first multigene molecular phylogeny of Fluviphylax, including all five nominal species of Fluviphylax and three undescribed species. The analysis included fragments of one mitochondrial and five nuclear genes, totaling 5880 bp. The dataset was analyzed using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference approaches providing high-supported well-solved trees. A time-calibrated analysis was performed providing information on the origin and diversification of the miniature genus in the Amazon. We estimate that Fluviphylax lineage splits from its sister group, the Anablepidae and Poeciliidae (Poeciliinae sensu Parenti, 1981), during the Late Eocene, about 36.6 Mya; but lineage diversification started only in the Middle Miocene, about 16 Mya, during the formation of the Pebas system. Subsequent splits within Fluviphylax occurred in the Late Miocene–Pliocene, between 10 and 6 Mya and during the Pliocene, and were probably influenced by paleogeographical events such as the breaching of the Purus arch, the rise of the Vaupés arch, the uplift of the Fitzcarrald arch, and the capture of the Contigo and Uraricoera river drainages by the Branco River. The present time-calibrated analysis provides the first insight on the evolution of one of the smallest vertebrate taxa in the Amazon and Orinoco river drainages.     

The Calibrated Phylogeny of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila fasciola</Emphasis> Subgroup (<Emphasis Type="Italic">D. repleta</Emphasis> Group Wasserman) Indicates Neogene Diversification of Its Internal Branches

The species of the Drosophila fasciola subgroup Wasserman represent the dominant section of the Drosophila repleta group Wasserman in the American rainforests and have a broad geographical distribution in the New World. However, despite of its wide range, the D. fasciola subgroup is one of the most overlooked D. repleta subgroups. Here, we report a molecular phylogenetic analysis focused on the D. fasciola subgroup using two mitochondrial [cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), cytochrome oxidase subunit II (COII)] and two nuclear [elongation factor-1alpha F1 (EF-alphaF1) and transformer (tra)] genes. Overall, we found that this subgroup is a monophyletic taxon, subdivided into two main internal branches: named Fas1 and Fas2 clades. The diversification of these clades is estimated to have begun in the middle Miocene, around 12 Ma [95% high posterior density (HPD) 9.0–15 Ma], and might be associated with the colonization of South America by Central America populations after the closure of Isthmus of Panama due to the temporal congruence between these events. The terminal branches had their origins estimated to be in the Pliocene or the Plio-Pleistocene transition. For the later estimates, both the geomorphological influences and the climatic oscillations of the Pleistocene may have played a role in shaping the diversification of the D. fasciola group.     

The ochotonids of Eurasia: Biochronology and taxonomic diversity

The ochotonid faunas of Eurasia and North America from the Oligocene to the present time are reviewed. The pika family (Ochotonidae Thomas 1897) belongs to the order Lagomorpha, which includes five families: Ochotonidae, Mimotonidae Li 1978, Leporidae Fischer 1817 (hares), Palaeolagidae Dice 1929, and Prolagidae Gureev 1960. The family Ochotonidae consists of two subfamilies: Sinolagomyinae Gureev, 1960 and Ochotoninae Thomas, 1897 and comprises a total of 17 genera. Originating in Central Asia at the beginning of the Late Oligocene, pikas flourished during the Late Oligocene. The highest taxonomic diversity of pikas can be found in the Miocene and Pliocene; towards the Pleistocene, the ochotonid fauna declined. Only one genus, Ochotona, remained extant by the end of the Pleistocene. The genus includes a total of 38 known extinct taxa and 28 extant species.     

Finds of fragmentary bird skeletons in the Middle Miocene of the northern Caucasus

The first anatomically assembled skeletal remains of Neogene birds in Russia have been found. The head and a fragment of the vertebral column of a duck (Anatidae) and a hind limb of a perching bird (Passeriformes) from the Middle Miocene of the Krasnodar Region (Tsurevsky Formation) comprise the earliest known Miocene birds from European Russia. The skull of a very small duck (smaller than any extant species of Eurasian ducks) shows a combination of morphological characters characteristic of the extant species of Tadorna and Nettapus, and could belong to a representative of the fossil genus Mioquerquedula. This discovery supports a separate generic status for small-sized middle Miocene anatids from Eurasia, and suggests that they were more primitive than the extant Anatinae.     

New and little-known taxa of the family Cixiidae (Homoptera,Fulgoroidea)

Six new genera and eight new species are described from South and Central Americas, South Africa, and Southeastern Asia. Illustrations of the male genitalia of the type species of the genera Duiliopsis Bergevin and Perindus Emeljanov are given. The generic name Duiliopsis is synonymized with Duilius Stål. The synonymy of the generic name Hemitropis Fieber with Duilius is supported.     

New radiolarians from the Devonian of the southern Ural Mountains: 2. Middle-Late Devonian

Middle-Late Devonian Radiolarians are recorded for the first time in the southern Ural Mountains in Bashkortostan, in a section of Kariukmas Mountain (Upper Eifelian) and on the southern slope of Argagan Mountain (Middle Frasnian). The new Late Eifelian assemblage is composed of 17 species of 11 genera, and Middle Frasnian radiolarians comprise 13 species of 7 genera of spherical, discoidal, pylomate, and spiny radiolarians. A new species, Primaritripus kariukmasensis, sp. nov., is described. The prevalence of discoidal forms in the oryctocenosis suggests shallow marine conditions in the Late Eifelian and Middle Frasnian basins. Two new biostratons, the Upper Eifelian beds with Primaritripus kariukmasensis and Middle Frasnian beds with Primaritripus chuvashovi, are established based on radiolarians.     

Snake fauna (Reptilia: Serpentes) from the Early/Middle Miocene of Sandelzhausen and Rothenstein 13 (Germany)

The Early/Middle Miocene (European Land Mammal Zone MN5) localities of Sandelzhausen and Rothenstein 13 in southern Germany have yielded remains of about 13 ophidian taxa: Eoanilius sp. (Aniliidae), Bavarioboa ultima (Boidae), “Coluber” sp., ?Telescopus sp., Natrix sp., cf. Natrix sp., cf. “Neonatrix” sp., unidentified “colubrines” and “natricines” (Colubridae), Naja sp., an unidentified elapid (Elapidae), Vipera sp. (“Oriental viper”), Vipera sp. (“aspis complex”) (Viperidae). Both faunas document a transitional phase from those reported from several late Early and Middle Miocene sites of Central and Western Europe. The climates of Sandelzhausen and Rothenstein 13, as indicated by ophidian fossils, were warm, although not tropical or subtropical.     

Evidence for diversification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calophyllum</Emphasis> L. (Calophyllaceae) in the Neogene Siwalik forests of eastern Himalaya

Here, we report fossil leaves, woods, and pollen grains comparable to Calophyllum L. (mainly to Calophyllum inophyllum L. and Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex Choisy) of Calophyllaceae from the upper (Kimin Formation, late Pliocene-early Pleistocene), middle (Subansiri Formation, Pliocene) Siwalik sediments of the Arunachal sub-Himalaya, and lower (Gish Clay Formation of Sevok Group; middle to late Miocene) Siwalik sediments of the Darjeeling foothills, eastern Himalaya. Their presence indicates a warm and humid tropical environment in the region during the period of Siwalik sedimentation. Considering all records of Calophyllum, it is suggested that Calophyllum was a frequent forest element throughout the period of Siwalik sedimentation during the Neogene (Miocene time). At present, C. polyanthum grows in the eastern Himalaya, but C. inophyllum is totally absent from north-eastern regions suggesting differential adaptability of these taxa to changing ecoclimatic conditions. Distinct climate change in the area, possibly related to the Himalayan Orogeny during Miocene–Pleistocene times, might have caused the disappearance of C. inophyllum from the entire eastern Himalaya and north-east Indian plains and a move to littoral/coastal and swampy forests of India and other adjoining south-east Asian regions, Polynesia, and the east coast of Africa. The past global distribution of Calophyllum is also discussed, and it is suggested that India may have been its primary centre of origin. This is the first time Cenozoic fossil leaves Calophyllum siwalikum Khan, R.A.Spicer & Bera, sp. nov. comparable to C. inophyllum are described using the both macro- and micromorphological characters.     

Re-Appraisal of <Emphasis Type="Italic">‘Felis’ pamiri</Emphasis> Ozansoy, 1959 (Carnivora,Felidae) from the Upper Miocene of Turkey: the Earliest Pantherin Cat?

Although the divergence of the Panthera clade from other Felidae might be as old as the earliest middle Miocene, its fossil record before the Pliocene is virtually non-existent. Here we reassess the affinities of a felid from the early upper Miocene of Turkey, known by well-preserved associated upper and lower dentitions. We conclude that it belongs to the same genus (Miopanthera Kretzoi, 1938) as the middle Miocene ‘Styriofelis’ lorteti (Gaillard, 1899), and that this genus is close to, if not part of, the Panthera clade.     

An enigmatic hawker dragonfly from the Middle Jurassic of China (Odonata,Aeshnoptera)

The aeshnopteran Propecymatophlebia magnifica gen. et sp. nov. is described from the Middle Jurassic Hiafanggou Formation of Inner Mongolia in China, on the basis of a complete forewing. It confirms the remarkable palaeodiversity of the stem group of the hawker dragonflies in Central Asia in the period between the Middle Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous.