The positive effect of arabinogalactan on induction of somatic embryogenesis in Quercus bicolor followed by embryo maturation and plant regeneration

This is the first report on the successful induction of somatic embryogenesis in swamp white oak from leaf and shoot apex explants excised from in vitro shoot cultures derived from 6- to 7-year-old trees. We demonstrated that arabinogalactan from larch wood (2–4 mg/L) promoted embryogenesis in the three genotypes evaluated by increasing the frequency of somatic embryogenesis, the embryogenic sites per explant, and by speeding the onset of embryo initiation. The explants were cultured sequentially on three culture media consisting of Murashige and Skoog (MS) salts and vitamins supplemented with 500 mg/L casein hydrolysate and different concentrations of α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 6-benzylaminopurine (BA). Somatic embryogenesis induction frequencies of up to 12.4, 4.5, and 0.7 % were obtained for the three genotypes. Clonal embryogenic lines were maintained by repetitive embryogenesis following culture on MS medium containing 0.44 μM BA with or without 0.27 μM NAA. Before germination, cotyledonary-stage embryos were cultured for 4 weeks in maturation medium (MS medium with half-strength macronutrients) containing 6 % sorbitol. Germination response was significantly improved by applying a 2-month cold storage as a post-maturation treatment. The mineral formulation and plant growth regulator content of the germination medium influenced the frequency of plantlet conversion with the best results achieved on Gresshoff and Doy medium with BA (0.25–0.44 μM). This procedure resulted in over 50–60 % of germinating embryos exhibiting continuous root growth and either epicotyl elongation or shoot development.     

Plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis in Drimia robusta

A simple efficient in vitro plant regeneration system was developed by direct and indirect somatic embryogenesis of Drimia robusta, a medicinal plant extensively used in South African traditional medicine. Different developmental stages of somatic embryos (SEs: globular embryos, partial pear-shaped embryos and club-shaped embryos), club-shaped cotyledon initiation, plumule initiation and plantlets were directly obtained from leaf explants on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing 3.5 % (w/v) sucrose and different plant growth regulators (PGRs). In MS medium containing 3.5 % (w/v) sucrose and supplemented with 10 μM picloram, 1 μM thidiazuron (TDZ) and 20 μM glutamine, a higher number of SEs and plantlets were achieved. These were established onto half-strength MS medium followed by successful acclimatization (100 %) in the greenhouse. Liquid somatic embryo medium (SEM_L) containing 500 mg of friable embryogenic callus on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of PGRs and organic elicitors produced different stages of SEs. Somatic embryo production was enhanced by 0.5 μM picloram, 1 μM TDZ and mebendazole treatment. The highest number of plantlets (9.0 ± 0.70) was obtained in SEM_L containing 0.5 μM picloram, 1 μM TDZ and 25 mg l^?1 haemoglobin. All the cotyledon and plumule embryos germinated on half-strength MS medium, however 90 % of SEs germinated on half-strength MS medium containing 0.5 μM naphthaleneacetic acid. All plantlets were successfully acclimatized in the greenhouse. This first report of D. robusta somatic embryogenesis provides an opportunity to control extinction threats, ensure germplasm conservation and provides a system for analysis of bioactive compounds and bioactivity.     

Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from cell suspension culture of niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.)

Somatic embryogenesis was achieved from cell suspension cultures of niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.). Initially, friable embryogenic calluses were induced from cotyledonary leaves of niger on Murashige and Skoog (MS) agar medium containing 5 μM 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 0.5 μM kinetin (KIN). Cell suspension cultures were established by using embryogenic calluses in MS liquid medium containing 5 μM 2,4-D and 0.5 μM KIN. Initiation of somatic embryogenesis and development up to globular stage from embryogenic cell clumps occurred in the liquid medium itself. Thereafter embryogenic cell aggregates were transferred to MS agar medium supplemented with 3 μM KIN for embryo differentiation, whereas maturation of somatic embryos occurred in MS agar medium containing 10 μM abscisic acid.     

Recurrent somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from seedlings of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hepatica nobilis</Emphasis> Schreb.

A method for secondary somatic embryogenesis was developed on embryos derived from embryogenic callus formed on Hepatica nobilis seedlings. Somatic embryogenesis (SE) was induced on seedlings (on the hypocotyl and epicotyl parts) grown on the Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium (MS) supplemented with 1 µM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), and/or 0.1 µM 6-benzyladenine (BA) and on medium without plant growth regulators (PGR). The best response of embryogenic callus formation was observed on the medium containing 1 µM NAA alone or with 0.1 µM BA. Individual somatic embryos, formed on embryogenic callus on the medium without PGR (MS0), at heart, torpedo and cotyledonary stage, were transferred to the media where secondary somatic embryo formation and development into plantlets occurred. Although the most efficient repetitive cycles of secondary SE were recorded for all stages of somatic embryos (heart, torpedo, cotyledonary) on the MS0 medium (77.8–87.4 %), secondary somatic embryos were also obtained on all media supplemented with cytokinins. The best rate of somatic embryos germination was achieved on MS media with 0.2 µM NAA and 2 µM BA, and 0.1 µM NAA and 1 µM BA (48.8–52.0 %) when more mature embryos (cotyledonary stage) were used. Plantlets grown from somatic embryos were successfully acclimatized to greenhouse conditions.     

Auxin and nutritional stress coupled somatic embryogenesis in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oldenlandia umbellata</Emphasis> L.

Somatic embryos were induced from internodal segment derived callus of Oldenlandia umbellata L., in MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D). Initially calli were developed from internodes of microshoots inoculated in 2.5 µM NAA supplemented medium. Then calli were transferred to 2,4-D added medium for somatic embryogenesis. Nutritional stress coupled with higher concentration of 2,4-D triggered somatic embryogenesis. Nutritional stress was induced by culturing callus in a fixed amount of medium for a period up to 20 weeks without any external supply of nutrients. Addition of 2.5 µM 2,4-D gave 100% embryogenesis within 16 weeks of incubation. Callus mass bearing somatic embryos were transferred to germination medium facilitated production of in vitro plantlets. MS medium supplemented with 2.5 µM benzyl adenine and 0.5 µM α-naphthalene acetic acid produced 15.33 plants per culture within 4 weeks of culture. Somatic embryo germinated plants were then hardened and transferred to green house.     

Regeneration of plants through somatic embryogenesis in Thymus hyemalis Lange,a potential medicinal and aromatic plant

A protocol for somatic embryogenesis was developed for Thymus hyemalis, a wild species in the Mediterranean region. First, the effects of explant type, plant growth regulators [kinetin (KIN) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)], and genotype on callus induction were tested. For callus induction, the node was the best explant; Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 1.8 μM 2,4-D and 0.5 μM KIN was the best medium, and the genotype had a highly significant effect. To induce production of somatic embryos, the effects of KIN, 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) were evaluated. After 5 wk of culture in the dark, MS medium supplemented with 4.44 μM BAP, 0.54 μM NAA, and 4.65 μM KIN gave the highest percentage (85%) of embryogenic callus and the highest number of somatic embryos (27.00) per 45 mg of callus. For germination and plant recovery, somatic embryos were transferred to MS medium without plant growth regulators and plantlet conversion from developed somatic embryos was 90%. In vitro plants with adequate growth and sufficient root systems were subsequently transplanted into a mixture of peat and vermiculite (2:1?v/v) under greenhouse conditions. The survival rate of the plantlets under ex vitro conditions was 80%.     

Somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration from mature zygotic embryos of Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.)

Using mature cotyledonary explants of Fraxinus mandshurica, an efficient plant regeneration system was developed via somatic embryogenesis. More than 67 % of mature cotyledons of zygotic embryos yielded 23–159 somatic embryos (SEs) per explant when incubated on medium consisting of half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) salts and vitamins (MS1/2) supplemented with 8.88 μM 6-benzyladenine (BA), 26.84 μM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 75 g L^?1 sucrose, and 400 mg L^?1 casein hydrolysate (CH). Approximately, 82 % of induced SEs were observed on browning cotyledonary explants. Histological studies of cotyledon explants at various stages of somatic embryogenesis revealed that the SEs originated from single epidermal cells and developed to the globular, heart, torpedo, and cotyledonary stage embryos. Secondary somatic embryos (SSEs) formed on the surface of radicle tips of the SEs. Addition of low concentrations of NAA and 200–400 mg L^?1 CH to MS1/2 medium increased SSE induction. Cotyledonary SSEs were cultured on MS1/2 medium with 10 mM abscisic acid in the presence of light to promote maturation, and >92 % of mature SSEs were able to germinate with normal shoots. After 8 weeks in culture in the presence of light on medium with one-third of the MS macroelements as well as 0.06 μM NAA, >94 % of the germinated SSEs converted into plantlets. Plantlets acclimatized successfully to ex vitro conditions and developed normal phenotypes under field conditions.     

Somatic embryogenesis in banana (Musa acuminata AAA cv. Grand Naine): effect of explant and culture conditions

An improved, rapid, reproducible, and simple protocol has been developed for somatic embryogenesis in banana cv. ‘Grand Naine’ using explants derived from actively growing multiple shoot cultures. Many restrictive factors remain in banana embryogenesis such as long duration, unpredictability, and a high degree of genotype dependence. In the present study, we used split shoot tips from 4-wk-old cultures as explants. Somatic embryos were induced in 15 d directly in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different combinations of 0–8.28 μM picloram and 0.22–4.44 μM 6-benzylaminopurine (BA) without callus formation. Maximum embryo induction (100%) occurred when 4.14 μM picloram and 0.22 μM BA were used. Conversion of somatic embryos into plantlets occurred sporadically (2–3%) in MS medium containing α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA; 0.53–2.68 μM) together with BA (2.22–44.39 μM), or thidiazuron (4.54 μM) plus glutamine (200 mg/L). This protocol is far superior to those already reported for fast and high frequency induction of somatic embryo. In liquid agitated culture, individual embryos separated easily and produced a large number of secondary embryos within 10 d which, upon transfer to filter paper overlaid on MS liquid medium supplemented with 4.44 μM BA, resulted in conversion (3%) into plantlets.     

Somatic embryogenesis in Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn

Induction of somatic embryos and plant regeneration was demonstrated for the first time in Alnus glutinosa. Somatic embryos were initiated from zygotic embryos collected 1–3 weeks post-anthesis (WPA), i.e., when they were at globular or early cotyledonary stage and were 0.5–1 mm in length. Induction frequency (16.6 %) and the mean number of somatic embryos (4.5 embryos/explant) were highest after culture of zygotic embryos, collected at 3 WPA, on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) supplemented with 0.9-μM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2.22-μM benzyladenine (BA). No embryogenic induction was observed on medium with BA alone. Initial somatic embryos differentiated indirectly from callus tissue formed at the surface of the zygotic embryos. Embryogenic competence was maintained by secondary embryogenesis, which was affected by explant type, plant growth regulators and genotype. Secondary embryogenesis was induced by culture of small groups of whole somatic embryos or isolated cotyledon explants on medium consisting of MS medium (half-strength macronutrients) supplemented with 0.44-μM BA. Histological study of isolated cotyledon explants revealed that secondary embryos developed directly from differentiated embryogenic tissue on the surface of cotyledons. Somatic embryos at successive stages of development, including cotyledonary-stage embryos with shoot and root meristems, were evident. For plantlet conversion, somatic embryos were transferred to maturation medium supplemented with 3 % maltose, followed by 6 weeks of culture in Woody Plant Medium supplemented with 0.44-μM BA and 0.46-μM Zeatin (Z). This novel protocol appears promising for mass propagation, conservation and genetic transformation of black alder.     

盐肤木体细胞胚胎发生及植株再生

以盐肤木(Rhus chinensis Mill.)幼胚为外植体,研究不同植物生长调节剂组合对其愈伤组织诱导及体细胞胚胎发生的影响,以建立盐肤木体细胞胚胎发生及植株再生体系。结果表明,最适愈伤组织诱导培养基为MS+6-BA 0.2 mg/L+2,4-D 1.0 mg/L,诱导率为84.57%,诱导出的初代愈伤组织白色或淡黄色,质地疏松,表面光滑,为非胚性愈伤。初代愈伤组织转移到1/2 MS+6-BA 2 mg/L+NAA 0.5 mg/L培养基上培养1个月后,长出淡黄色质地紧密的胚性愈伤组织,诱导率高达100%,在此培养基上胚性愈伤组织增殖倍数为854.73%。所获得的胚性愈伤组织转接到1/2 MS+6-BA 2 mg/L+NAA 0.5 mg/L+蔗糖4%的培养基上培养1个月后可诱导体细胞胚胎发生,诱导率可达32.67%。诱导得到的体细胞胚胎经历球形胚、心形胚、鱼雷胚、子叶胚进一步分化发育成苗。无菌苗炼苗后栽种到泥炭土∶蛭石∶珍珠岩为2∶1∶1的生长基质上,能100%稳定成活。经过细胞学观察分析,体细胞胚的发育与合子胚相似。     

Somatic embryogenesis in Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet and assessment of genetic homogeneity using SCoT markers

This study describes an efficient plant regeneration protocol for Abutilon indicum via somatic embryogenesis from 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)-induced leaf-derived callus on MS medium, fortified with 13.32 μM 6-benzyladenine (BA), 2.68 μM α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 200 mgl^?1-activated charcoal, and 11.54 μM ascorbic acid. This combination produced the highest (15.5 ± 0.7) number of somatic embryos after four weeks of culture. Further, the embryogenic calli were transferred to MS medium supplemented with 13.32 μM BA, 1.44 μM gibberellic acid (GA₃), and 3% (w/v) sucrose and showed highest rate of germination (76.3 ± 7.0%). The germinated somatic embryos showed maximum plantlet conversion (62.6 ± 1.90%) on ½ MS medium supplemented with 4.92 μM indole-3-butyric acid and 6.0% sucrose (w/v). The highest frequency of secondary somatic embryogenesis (34.4 ± 0.82) was observed on ½ MS medium, supplemented with 133 μM FeSO₄·7H₂O, 74 μM ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid disodium dihydrate (disodium EDTA), and 15% polyethylene glycol-4000 (PEG-4000) after three weeks of subculture. Scanning electron microscopy observations also substantiated the development of primary and secondary somatic embryos from embryogenic calli. Start codon targeted polymorphism (SCoT) marker analysis of 214 somatic embryo-derived plantlets amplified 167 numbers of bands ranging from 230 to 2125 bp. The homogeneous banding pattern confirmed the genetic uniformity of this sample of somatic embryo-derived plantlets as compared with the donor plant.     

花楸合子胚诱导体细胞胚胎发生研究

分别以完整成熟胚、切去一个子叶的成熟胚和切下的子叶为外植体,以MS为基本诱导培养基、1/2MS为基本分化培养基,进行了花楸体细胞胚胎发生研究。结果表明:以完整合子胚作为外植体的体胚诱导率最高,为100%,最佳植物生长调节剂组合为5 mg.L-1NAA+2 mg.L-16-BA;NAA和6-BA浓度及二者的交互作用对愈伤组织和体胚诱导率的影响极显著;光照配合延长继代间隔时间有利于体胚发生。实体观察结果表明,花楸体胚发生方式有直接发生和间接发生两种;体胚发育经历了球形期、心形期、鱼雷形期和子叶期。组织学观察结果表明,体胚具有两极性,子叶期体胚结构完整。     

Differential responses to somatic embryogenesis of different genotypes of Brazilian oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)

To assess the potential of different genotypes of Brazilian oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) to somatic embryogenesis and somatic embryo proliferation, mature zygotic embryos of nine commercial genotypes of E. guineensis (BRSC2001, BRSC2328, BRSC2301, BRSC3701, BRSCM1115, BRSC7201, BRSC2528, BRSC2501, and BRSCN1637) were used. Explants were incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) supplemented with 450 μM picloram, 3.0 % sucrose, 500 mg l^?1 glutamine, and 2.5 g l^?1 activated charcoal, and gelled with 2.5 g l^?1 Phytagel. After induction, for differentiation and maturation, the embryogenic calli (ECs) were transferred into fresh medium supplemented with 0.6 μM naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and 12.30 μM 2-isopentenyladenine (2iP) or 40 μM picloram in combination with 0.3 g l^?1 activated charcoal, and 500 mg l^?1 glutamine. Somatic embryos were converted into plants on MS medium with macro- and micro-nutrients at half strength, 2 % sucrose, and 2.5 g l^?1 activated charcoal, and gelled with 2.5 g l^?1 Phytagel. In general, zygotic embryos swelled after 14 days. Primary calli, which were observed in all the genotypes after 45–60 days of culture, eventually progressed to ECs at 90 days. At this time, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed cellular differences between compact and friable calli. After 150 days in the induction phase, the ECs with proembryos that were transferred to the medium for differentiation and maturation, differentiated asynchronically into somatic embryos at globular and torpedo stages. The results showed that BRSC2328 and BRSCM1115 had the highest potential for EC formation (90–100 %) and somatic embryo differentiation (40.7 and 52.5 somatic embryos per callus, respectively) when compared to other genotypes. After approximately 90 days of culture on MS basal medium without growth regulators, protrusion of the leaf primordia was observed, characterizing the onset of germination of the somatic embryos into plants.     

领春木体细胞胚胎发生及植株再生

以领春木（Eupteleapleiospermum Hook．f.etThoms．）种子幼胚为试验材料,对领春木体细胞胚胎发生进行了研究。结果表明：在附加1．0mg·L-1 2,4．D＋0．5mg·L-1 6-BA＋3％蔗糖＋0．8％琼脂的Ms培养基上可诱导出愈伤组织。愈伤组织在附加0．5mg·L-1 NAA＋0．5mg·L-1 6．BA的培养基上可形成体细胞胚;体胚在附加0．5mg·L-1 6-BA＋0．05mg·L-1 NAA＋0．1％PVP的1／2MS培养基上能大量增殖;将成熟体胚转移到不添加任何植物生长调节剂的MS培养基上,培养60d,形成正常植株。     

A rapid protocol for somatic embryogenesis from immature leaflets of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Summary Plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis was developed in two groundnut varieties. Somatic embryogenesis was induced from immature leaflets on MS medium with different concentrations of the auxins 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) or naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) in combination with 0.5 mg/l of the cytokinin BA. The highest frequency of somatic embryo formation occurred on MS medium fortified with 20 mg 2,4-D per l. Of the two auxins tested individually 2,4-D was more effective for induction of embryogenesis as well as production of embryos. Embryo development and maturation was achieved on MS medium supplemented with N⁶-benzyladenine (BA) (0.5–2.0 mg/l) and 2,4-D (0.5 mg/l). Plant conversion frequency from somatic embryos was highest in presence of 2.0 mg BA per l and 0.5 mg NAA per l. The frequency of embryogenesis and plant regeneration was higher in the VRI-2 cultivar than in the other cultivar tested. Regenerated plants were transferred to soil, grown to maturity, and produced viable seeds.     

Complete germination of papaya (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Carica papaya</Emphasis> L. cv. `Maradol Roja´) somatic embryos using temporary immersion system type RITA® and phloroglucinol in semi-solid culture medium

A critical factor in somatic embryogenesis protocols in papaya (Carica papaya L.) has been incomplete germination of somatic embryos due to formation of a basal callus, which prevents the emission of the radicle. This work aims to achieve complete germination of somatic embryos in liquid and semi-solid culture media. The effect of the culture conditions on germination of somatic embryos using the RITA® temporary immersion system were evaluated as well as the effect of phloroglucinol on germination of somatic embryos in semi-solid culture medium. The results of using the RITA® culture medium with a combination of 0.02 μM BAP and 2.90 μM gibberellic acid had a good response for total germination (100%) but somatic embryos had only partial germination with 400 mg fresh mass. However, the optimum inoculum density was 200 mg fresh mass of somatic embryos which produced 100% total germination and 95% somatic embryos with complete germination. Also, it was possible to achieve complete germination of somatic embryos with low callus formation (13%) using phloroglucinol at a concentration of 475.8 μM on semi-solid culture medium. This is the first report of two biotechnological strategies for complete germination of plants from somatic embryos in the papaya cultivar `Maradol Roja´.     

Factors affecting plantlet regeneration from in vitro cultured immature embryos and cotyledons of Prunus mume “Xue mei”

Using immature embryos and cotyledons as explants, a successful immature embryo culture and efficient plant direct regeneration via organogenesis from cotyledons, which showed different patterns, was established for the “Xuemei” cultivar of Prunus mume. For immature embryo culture, high frequency plantlet forming (89.5%) from embryo axis was obtained on half-strength Murashige and Skoog (½MS) medium supplemented with 13.2 μM 6-benzyladenine (BA) and 2.7 μM 1-naphthaleneacetic (NAA). At the same time, shoots direct differentiation from cotyledons with the embryo axis development was also observed on ½MS medium containing 2.2 μM BA together with different combinations of NAA (2.7, 5.4 μM) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) (0, 2.5, 5.0 μM). Better results were achieved when embryo axes were removed from cotyledons and cultured on ½MS medium supplement with 13.2 μM BA, 2.7 μM NAA (72.9%) or 2.2 μM BA, 2.2 μM thidiazuron (TDZ), and 2.7 μM NAA (84.2%), respectively. Regenerated shoots were successfully rooted on ½MS or Woody Plant medium (WPM) supplemented with 2.5–5.0 μM IBA. The effect of embryo axes, BA and TDZ, on cotyledons’ regeneration were investigated in detail. The rooted plantlets were transferred to soil successfully with normal morphology.     

In vitro propagation and conservation of Indian sarsaparilla, Hemidesmus indicus L. R. Br. through somatic embryogenesis and synthetic seed production

A protocol has been developed for achieving somatic embryogenesis from callus derived from nodal cuttings and production of synthetic seeds in Hemidesmus indicus L. R. Br. a highly traded ethnomedicinal plant. Proembryogenic, friable, light yellowish callus was induced from the basal cut end of the nodal cuttings on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 3 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The highest rate of somatic embryogenesis (92 %) was observed when the callus was subcultured on half strength MS medium supplemented with 2 μM IBA. On induction medium somatic embryos were developed up to the torpedo stage. Further elongation and germination of somatic embryos were obtained in MS medium supplemented with 4 μM 6-benzylaminopurine (BA) in combination with 1.5 μM gibberellic acid (GA₃). Somatic embryos were collected and suspended in a matrix of MS medium containing sodium alginate (3 % W/V) dropped into 75 mM calcium chloride (CaCl₂·2H₂O) solution for the production of synthetic seeds and later transferred to MS medium for germination. The synthetic seeds were successfully germinated on medium even after 120 days of storage at 4 °C. The plantlets were eventually transferred to soil with 92 % success.     

Development of an in vitro protocol for a difficult-to-propagate endemic Australian dryland sedge species Mesomelaena pseudostygia (Cyperaceae)

In vitro propagation for Mesomelaena pseudostygia a difficult-to-propagate dryland sedge species (Cyperaceae) endemic to Western Australia is described. Multiple avenues to in vitro propagation were investigated: shoot culture, organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis, with zygotic embryos as initiation material. The highest multiplication rate for shoots was 3.4?±?1.0 after 6 wk on basal medium (1/2 strength Murashige and Skoog) with 2.5 μM kinetin and 0.5 μM 6-benzylaminopurine. Shoots achieved peak rooting (83%) following a pulse treatment on basal medium containing 10 μM indolebutyric acid and 2 μM α-naphthaleneacetic acid for 7 wk, followed by transfer to medium (without growth regulators) for a further 7 wk. Alternatively, in vitro grown shoots were pulse treated on basal medium with both 100 μM indolebutyric acid and 20 μM α-naphthaleneacetic acid for 1 wk then placed in Rockwool plugs (under propagation house conditions) for another 7 wk resulting in 63% root induction. Rooted plantlets were also successfully transferred to potting mixture either in Rockwool plugs or bare rooted and maintained in propagation house conditions with ≥95% survival after 7 wk. These results indicate that micropropagation of M. pseudostygia is feasible for small to medium scale restoration purposes. The highest frequency of callus induction was from cultured zygotic embryos on basal medium with 5 μM α-naphthaleneacetic acid, whereas 2,4-dichlorophenoxacetic acid (2 or 5 μM) produced the largest callus sizes. A low frequency of shoot regeneration occurred in zygotic callus tissues in basal medium treatments containing cytokinin (kinetin or thidiazuron at 1 μM). A small proportion (<20%) of zygotic embryo callus explants from 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid treatments were found to be embryogenic, firstly developing embryo-like structures after 2 wk on basal medium (minus plant growth hormones), that continued to develop with approximately one in twenty germinating after a further 4 wk on basal medium to form small plantlets. Further optimisation is needed to improve somatic embryogenesis efficiency for mass propagation.     

Morpho-histological and ultrastructural study on direct somatic embryogenesis of Capsicum chinense Jacq. in liquid medium

Somatic embryo-like structures were produced from the hypocotyls of aseptic plants of Capsicum chinense. Different concentrations of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (0, 4.5, 9.05 μM), several exposure times of the explant to this auxin (15, 30, 45, 60 days) and the development of somatic embryos cultured in a solid and/or liquid medium were evaluated. As a result, a novel system of regeneration via direct somatic embryogenesis in liquid medium was established, with an efficiency of 1.77 × 10⁴ somatic embryos per liter of medium. Critical stages of embryogenesis, including cellular acquisition of morphogenetic competence, suspensor formation, and development and maturation of somatic embryos, were identified by histological analysis and scanning electron microscopy. Our results show a promising new outlook on the in vitro regeneration of this species. Contrary to what has been reported to date for the Capsicum genus, it is a species of plants with higher embryogenic potential in vitro.