组蛋白泛素化与去泛素化对染色质和基因表达的研究进展

组蛋白或转录因子或辅助因子进行泛素化和去泛素化,能够介导某些生理和病理过程。泛素化和去泛素化的动态平衡确保染色质处于健康的稳定状态。组蛋白泛素化酶和去泛素化酶通过识别DNA损伤位点、传导信号和招募修复因子等方式参与维持染色质稳态。组蛋白泛素化修饰和去泛素化修饰通过抑制(多数)或促进(少数)基因转录,从而影响基因表达。本综述主要关注组蛋白泛素化修饰和去泛素化修饰与染色质稳态和基因转录的关系,探讨这些过程在发育调控和在某些疾病中的作用,为相关疾病的治疗提供理论依据。     

泛素化修饰在抗病毒天然免疫反应中的作用

蛋白质翻译后修饰几乎调控细胞所有的生命活动,有大量研究报道了其中的泛素化在病毒感染过程中的作用。受病毒感染时,宿主可利用泛素化修饰起始抗病毒天然免疫反应,从而抵抗病毒入侵。相应地,病毒也可以利用泛素化修饰逃逸细胞的免疫反应。该文从宿主与病毒两个角度综述了蛋白质的泛素化修饰在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用及其调控机制,为抗病毒的治疗提供一些新的策略。     

泛素化调控抗病毒天然免疫的研究进展

天然免疫是宿主防御病原微生物入侵的第一道防线,其活化主要通过天然免疫细胞上的模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRRs)识别病原微生物上相对保守的相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs).病毒相关的核酸成分可以被机体Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors, TLRs)、维甲酸诱导基因Ⅰ受体(RIG-I-like receptors, RLRs)以及胞浆DNA受体(cytoplasmic DNA sensors)等识别,通过一系列复杂的细胞信号通路诱导Ⅰ型干扰素(typeⅠinterferon)及炎症因子的表达,从而激发机体抗病毒反应.泛素化修饰是细胞内广泛存在的蛋白质翻译后修饰方式,在宿主防御病原微生物感染的动态调控过程中发挥着重要的作用.已有大量文献报道,天然免疫抗病毒信号通路中的多个关键接头分子可发生泛素化修饰,进而调控机体抗病毒免疫应答反应.本文综述了泛素化修饰在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用及其调控机制.     

组蛋白的泛素化与去泛素化修饰

泛素在真核生物体内广泛存在,泛素化修饰是转录后的修饰方式之一;组蛋白是染色质的主要成分之一,与基因的表达有密切关系。组蛋白的泛素化修饰与经典的蛋白质的泛素调节途径不同,不会导致蛋白质的降解,但是能够招募核小体到染色体、参与X染色体的失活、影响组蛋白的甲基化和基因的转录。组蛋白的去泛素化修饰同样与染色质的结构及基因表达密切相关。组蛋白的泛素化和磷酸化、乙酰化、甲基化修饰之间还存在协同和级联效应。     

泛素链水解酶的选择性和产生机制

底物蛋白的多聚泛素链修饰参与调节多种生命运动过程(包括蛋白质降解、自噬、DNA损伤修复、细胞周期、信号转导、基因表达、转录调节、炎症免疫等).去泛素化酶通过水解底物蛋白的单泛素和泛素链修饰,对泛素相关过程进行反向调节.人类基因组中约含90余种去泛素化酶,它们通过对自身酶活性和底物识别特异性的调节,实现了对细胞内复杂泛素过程的精密且层次性的调控.本文针对去泛素化酶对不同泛素链的识别选择性,综述目前已知泛素链水解酶的选择性和产生机制.     

泛素化修饰对维甲酸诱导基因I样受体家族(RLRs)信号通路分子调控作用的研究进展

维甲酸诱导基因I样受体家族(retinoid acid-inducible gene-I-like receptors, RLRs)信号通路作为众多抗感染免疫信号通路之一，在诱导促炎细胞因子、趋化因子和I型干扰素产生等方面发挥重要的调控作用。作为蛋白质翻译后修饰之一的泛素化(ubiquitination)，是由泛素蛋白(ubiquitin)与目标蛋白上不同的氨基酸位点产生结合来调控蛋白的命运，如启动蛋白酶体途径降解蛋白或激活转运等功能。而RLRs信号通路分子的泛素化修饰既是调控多种效应因子的方式之一，也是病毒经此诱发动物重要疾病以及自身免疫病、慢性炎症的经典路径之一。本文主要综述RLRs信号通路中重要的效应器分子的典型结构特征、泛素化修饰类型和功能，探讨泛素化修饰调控RLRs信号通路关键分子的作用，为相关疾病的干预或治疗提供参考。     

泛素连接酶和去泛素化酶在帕金森病中的作用

中脑黑质多巴胺能神经元特异性损伤和α突触核蛋白聚集的分子机制是帕金森病（Parkinson’s disease,PD）研究领域亟待解决的问题。蛋白质异常聚集很大程度上是由于泛素-蛋白酶体系统（ubiquitin-proteasome system,UPS）功能障碍引起的。蛋白质泛素化由一系列泛素化酶级联反应促进，并受去泛素化酶（deubiquitylases,DUBs）的反向调节。泛素化和去泛素化过程异常导致蛋白质异常聚集和包涵体形成，进而损伤神经元。近来研究报道，蛋白质的泛素化和去泛素化修饰在PD的发病机制中发挥重要作用。E3泛素连接酶促进蛋白质的泛素化，有利于α突触核蛋白的清除、促进多巴胺能神经元的存活、维持线粒体的功能等。DUBs可以去掉底物蛋白质的泛素化修饰，抑制α突触核蛋白的降解，调控线粒体的功能和神经元内铁的稳态。本文以E3泛素连接酶和DUBs为切入点，综述了蛋白质泛素化和去泛素化修饰参与多巴胺能神经元损伤机制的最新研究进展。     

USP18介导的蛋白质去ISG化及其在结核病等传染病中的作用

干扰素诱导基因15 (interferon-stimulated gene 15,isg15)的表达受Ⅰ型干扰素诱导,该基因编码的蛋白ISG15可以分别通过E1、E2和E3酶的作用共价修饰靶蛋白,此过程被称为ISG化(ISGylation)。宿主蛋白的ISG化广泛参与天然免疫例如宿主的抗病毒过程。泛素特异性蛋白酶18 (ubiquitin-specific protease 18,USP18)作为一种去泛素化酶(deubiquitinase,DUB)可以去除靶蛋白偶联的ISG15,并通过抑制Ⅰ型干扰素信号通路来抑制宿主的免疫应答。ISG15介导的ISG化和USP18介导的去ISG化(deISGylation)建立的动态平衡对结核病的发生、发展和转归有重要影响。此外,同ISG15一样,USP18也广泛参与病毒感染和宿主细胞抗病毒反应,多种先天性免疫疾病和免疫信号通路都受到USP18的调节。本文综述了ISG15和USP18相关的研究进展,重点介绍了ISG15介导的ISGylation和USP18介导的去ISG化在结核病及其他重要疾病中的调控作用,以期为靶向宿主蛋白的结核病等重要疾病防治提供...     

病原菌效应因子调控宿主泛素化修饰的研究进展北大核心

泛素化(ubiquitination)是真核细胞内广泛存在的蛋白质翻译后修饰方式,参与并调控DNA修复、细胞周期、免疫应答、信号通路等真核细胞内几乎所有的生命活动。同时,细胞通过去泛素化酶(deubiquitinases,DUBs)使泛素化修饰成为可逆过程,保证了泛素化系统及其相关生理过程的动态平衡。病原菌感染过程中,宿主细胞可通过泛素化修饰发挥抗细菌感染作用。然而,病原菌可编码并分泌效应因子,靶向宿主泛素(ubiquitin,Ub)系统并调控宿主泛素化修饰过程,干扰宿主细胞的免疫应答,从而促进细菌存活与毒力。本文概述了重要病原菌利用效应因子调控宿主细胞泛素化修饰的研究进展,有助于全面理解病原菌调控宿主泛素化修饰促进感染的机制。     

去泛素化酶与肿瘤

泛素化修饰(ubiquitination modification)广泛存在于真核生物,通过26S蛋白酶体降解途径或信号传递等,改变蛋白质稳定性、定位和活性等功能,参与细胞的周期、转录、炎症、肿瘤和免疫等各项功能,是一类复杂的动态调控系统.泛素化调节是一个可逆过程,被泛素连接酶(ubiquitin ligase,E3)...     

Linear Ubiquitination of NEMO Negatively Regulates the Interferon Antiviral Response through Disruption of the MAVS-TRAF3 Complex

The RIG-I/Mda5 sensors recognize viral intracellular RNA and trigger host antiviral responses. RIG-I signals through the adaptor protein MAVS, which engages various TRAF family members and results in type I interferon (IFNs) and proinflammatory cytokine production via activation of IRFs and NF-κB, respectively. Both the IRF and NF-κB pathways also require the adaptor protein NEMO. We determined that the RIG-I pathway is differentially regulated by the linear ubiquitin assembly complex (LUBAC), which consists of the E3 ligases HOIL-1L, HOIP, and the accessory protein SHARPIN. LUBAC downregulated virus-mediated IFN induction by targeting NEMO for linear ubiquitination. Linear ubiquitinated NEMO associated with TRAF3 and disrupted the MAVS-TRAF3 complex, which inhibited IFN activation while stimulating NF-κB-dependent signaling. In SHARPIN-deficient MEFs, vesicular stomatitis virus replication was decreased due to increased IFN production. Linear ubiquitination thus switches NEMO from a positive to a negative regulator of RIG-I signaling, resulting in an attenuated IFN response.     

Regulation of RLR-mediated innate immune signaling--it is all about keeping the balance

The current view of cytoplasmic RNA-mediated innate immune signaling involves the differential activation of the RNA helicases retinoic acid-inducible gene 1 (RIG-I), melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) and laboratory of genetics and physiology-2 (LGP2) by distinct RNA viruses. RIG-I, MDA5 and LGP2 form the RIG-I like receptor family (RLR). Since the initial characterization of the RLRs rapid progress has been made in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that upon virus infection lead to the activation of downstream signaling cascades and the subsequent induction of type I interferon (IFN) and proinflammatory cytokines by these receptors. However, antiviral responses must be tightly regulated in order to prevent uncontrolled production of type I IFN that might have deleterious effects on the host. Exploring the structural and molecular mechanisms that underlie RLR signaling thus was accompanied by the discovery of how RLR-dependent antiviral responses are modulated. This article summarizes the current understanding of endogenous regulation in RLR signaling by various intrinsic molecules that exert their regulatory function in both the steady state or upon viral infection by targeting multiple steps of the signaling cascade.     

Tetraspanin 6 (TSPAN6) Negatively Regulates Retinoic Acid-inducible Gene I-like Receptor-mediated Immune Signaling in a Ubiquitination-dependent Manner

The recognition between retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptors (RLRs) and viral RNA triggers an intracellular cascade of signaling to induce the expression of type I IFNs. Both positive and negative regulation of the RLR signaling pathway are important for the host antiviral immune response. Here, we demonstrate that the tetraspanin protein TSPAN6 inhibits RLR signaling by affecting the formation of the adaptor MAVS (mitochondrial antiviral signaling)-centered signalosome. We found that overexpression of TSPAN6 impaired RLR-mediated activation of IFN-stimulated response element, NF-κB, and IFN-β promoters, whereas knockdown of TSPAN6 enhanced the RLR-mediated signaling pathway. Interestingly, as the RLR pathway was activated, TSPAN6 underwent Lys-63-linked ubiquitination, which promoted its association with MAVS. The interaction of TSPAN6 and MAVS interfered with the recruitment of RLR downstream molecules TRAF3, MITA, and IRF3 to MAVS. Further study revealed that the first transmembrane domain of TSPAN6 is critical for its ubiquitination and association with MAVS as well as its inhibitory effect on RLR signaling. We concluded that TSPAN6 functions as a negative regulator of the RLR pathway by interacting with MAVS in a ubiquitination-dependent manner.     

The RIG‐I‐like receptor LGP2 inhibits Dicer‐dependent processing of long double‐stranded RNA and blocks RNA interference in mammalian cells

In vertebrates, the presence of viral RNA in the cytosol is sensed by members of the RIG‐I‐like receptor (RLR) family, which signal to induce production of type I interferons (IFN). These key antiviral cytokines act in a paracrine and autocrine manner to induce hundreds of interferon‐stimulated genes (ISGs), whose protein products restrict viral entry, replication and budding. ISGs include the RLRs themselves: RIG‐I, MDA5 and, the least‐studied family member, LGP2. In contrast, the IFN system is absent in plants and invertebrates, which defend themselves from viral intruders using RNA interference (RNAi). In RNAi, the endoribonuclease Dicer cleaves virus‐derived double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) into small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that target complementary viral RNA for cleavage. Interestingly, the RNAi machinery is conserved in mammals, and we have recently demonstrated that it is able to participate in mammalian antiviral defence in conditions in which the IFN system is suppressed. In contrast, when the IFN system is active, one or more ISGs act to mask or suppress antiviral RNAi. Here, we demonstrate that LGP2 constitutes one of the ISGs that can inhibit antiviral RNAi in mammals. We show that LGP2 associates with Dicer and inhibits cleavage of dsRNA into siRNAs both in vitro and in cells. Further, we show that in differentiated cells lacking components of the IFN response, ectopic expression of LGP2 interferes with RNAi‐dependent suppression of gene expression. Conversely, genetic loss of LGP2 uncovers dsRNA‐mediated RNAi albeit less strongly than complete loss of the IFN system. Thus, the inefficiency of RNAi as a mechanism of antiviral defence in mammalian somatic cells can be in part attributed to Dicer inhibition by LGP2 induced by type I IFNs. LGP2‐mediated antagonism of dsRNA‐mediated RNAi may help ensure that viral dsRNA substrates are preserved in order to serve as targets of antiviral ISG proteins.     

Dual targeting of RIG-I and MAVS by MARCH5 mitochondria ubiquitin ligase in innate immunity

The mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS) protein on the mitochondrial outer membrane acts as a central signaling molecule in the RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) signaling pathway by linking upstream viral RNA recognition to downstream signal activation. We previously reported that mitochondrial E3 ubiquitin ligase, MARCH5, degrades the MAVS protein aggregate and prevents persistent downstream signaling. Since the activated RIG-I oligomer interacts and nucleates the MAVS aggregate, MARCH5 might also target this oligomer. Here, we report that MARCH5 targets and degrades RIG-I, but not its inactive phosphomimetic form (RIG-I^S8E). The MARCH5-mediated reduction of RIG-I is restored in the presence of MG132, a proteasome inhibitor. Upon poly(I:C) stimulation, RIG-I forms an oligomer and co-expression of MARCH5 reduces the expression of this oligomer. The RING domain of MARCH5 is necessary for binding to the CARD domain of RIG-I. In an in vivo ubiquitination assay, MARCH5 transfers the Lys 48-linked polyubiquitin to Lys 193 and 203 residues of RIG-I. Thus, dual targeting of active RIG-I and MAVS protein oligomers by MARCH5 is an efficient way to switch-off RLR signaling. We propose that modulation of MARCH5 activity might be beneficial for the treatment of chronic immune diseases.