A three‐dimensional morphometric analysis of upper forelimb morphology in the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) hints at subtle variations in locomotor ecology

Forelimb morphology is an indicator for terrestrial locomotor ecology. The limb morphology of the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) has often been compared to that of basal perissodactyls, despite the lack of quantitative studies comparing forelimb variation in modern tapirs. Here, we present a quantitative assessment of tapir upper forelimb osteology using three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics to test whether the four modern tapir species are monomorphic in their forelimb skeleton. The shape of the upper forelimb bones across four species (T. indicus; T. bairdii; T. terrestris; T. pinchaque) was investigated. Bones were laser scanned to capture surface morphology and 3D landmark analysis was used to quantify shape. Discriminant function analyses were performed to reveal features which could be used for interspecific discrimination. Overall our results show that the appendicular skeleton contains notable interspecific differences. We demonstrate that upper forelimb bones can be used to discriminate between species (>91% accuracy), with the scapula proving the most diagnostic bone (100% accuracy). Features that most successfully discriminate between the four species include the placement of the cranial angle of the scapula, depth of the humeral condyle, and the caudal deflection of the olecranon. Previous studies comparing the limbs of T. indicus and T. terrestris are corroborated by our quantitative findings. Moreover, the mountain tapir T. pinchaque consistently exhibited the greatest divergence in morphology from the other three species. Despite previous studies describing tapirs as functionally mediportal in their locomotor style, we find osteological evidence suggesting a spectrum of locomotor adaptations in the tapirs. We conclude that modern tapir forelimbs are neither monomorphic nor are tapirs as conserved in their locomotor habits as previously described. J. Morphol. 277:1469–1485, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur optischen Kommunikation bei im Zoo gehaltenen Schabracken- und Flachlandtapiren (Tapirus indicus und Tapirus terrestris)

Until now, unlike their relatives, rhinos and horses tapirs have received considerably less attention in studies about communication. Therefore, it was the aim of this study to test which stimuli contain optical information for tapirs. For this purpose, the reactions of tapirs on optical stimuli (posters with edited tapir silhouettes) were examined. Research visits took place at the zoos of Berlin, Dortmund, Heidelberg, Munich, Nuremberg and Osnabrück during the year 2006. A total of 23 individuals, thereof 8 (5.3) Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) and 15 (5.10) Lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) attended the experiment. The results of the optical test with variously intense edited tapir silhouettes speak for the importance of the white ear rims as a family specific key stimulus. But that effect could not be amplified by adding a greater extent of white to the silhouette. Tapirs of both species reacted most strongly to the normal tapir silhouette followed by a silhouette without proboscis.     

Stable Isotope Ecology of Extant Tapirs from the Americas

Understanding the ecology of modern and ancient forests can help clarify the evolution of forest dwelling mammals. It is first necessary, however, to elucidate the source and extent of stable isotope variation in forest taxa. Tapirs are of particular interest because they are model organisms for identifying forest environments due to their highly conservative diet and habitat preferences. Here, stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of extant tapirs are quantified to test hypotheses regarding ontogenetic diet shifts, stable isotope variation at the population level, and relationships between stable isotopes and climatic variables. A population of extant tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) demonstrates low δ¹³C variation (～2–3‰) and increased δ¹³C values in late erupting teeth, indicating that juveniles consume ¹³C deplete milk and/or browse in denser forests. Disparate δ¹⁸O values of late erupting teeth are instead reflecting seasonal variation. Extant tapir (T. bairdii, Tapirus pinchaque, Tapirus terrestris) δ¹⁸O values are constrained by climatic and geographic variables. Most notably, δ¹⁸O values of T. bairdii decrease with decreasing precipitation frequency. Tapirus terrestris is typically present in areas with greater precipitation than T. bairdii and δ¹⁸O values instead positively correlate with δ¹³C values. These data indicate that tapirs in wetter areas are getting a larger proportion of their water from leaves experiencing less evaporation in denser canopies, while T. bairdii is interpreted to increase its consumption of water via drinking when present in drier areas. An understanding of extant tapir stable isotope ecology improves ecological interpretations of these elusive mammals both today and in the past. Abstract in Spanish is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

Pregnancy detection in tapirs by direct urinary estrone sulfate analysis

Urinary levels of estrone sulfate (ES), indexed by creatinine (CR), were evaluated by a direct radioimmunoassay of four Malayan (Tapirus indicus) and one Brazillian (Tapirus terrestris) tapir pregnancies. Levels rose above baseline ES values of 20 ± 1.2 ng/mg CR (n = 200) in the Brazilian animal and 25 ± 1.3 ng/mg CR (n = 105) in the Malayan animals at approximately 7 months prior to parturition and continued to rise in both species until just before parturition. Quantitatively, levels rose 10-fold higher in the Brazillian animal than in the Malayan animals through approximately 1 month prior to parturition in both species. These findings indicate that routine urinary monitoring provides an accurate means for detecting pregnancy in tapirs and suggests differences in estrogen excretion patterns between tapir species and with other perissodactyls.     

Densidad Poblacional y Disponibilidad de Híbitat de la Danta de Montaña (Tapirus pinchaque) en los Andes Centrales de Colombia1

Population density of Tapirus pinchaque was estimated in 7000 ha Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados in the central Andes of Colombia. Eight variables were measured in 110 left rear foot prints of the mountain tapir: total length and width, and length and width of the three toes. This information was analyzed with Cluster Analysis by means of UPGMA and Euclidean distance using the scores obtained by means of a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using the eight variables. Habitat availability was measured in 147,000 ha using aerial photographs taken during the 1950s and 1980s. The results of the cluster analysis showed that there are between 11 and 15 individuals, for a mean density of one individual for each 551 ± 85 ha. The measurements of forest cover in the 147000 ha showed that habitat availability for the mountain tapir (montane forests and forestry plantations) increased 18l4lha from the 1950s to the 1980s. This increment in forest cover seems to have a positive effect on the local population size of T. pinchaque, since in areas previously covered by pastures, there are now secondary forests where tapirs tracks and feces can be found.     

Phylogenetics of Perissodactyla and Tests of the Molecular Clock

Two mitochondrial genes, the protein-coding cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COII) gene and a portion of the 12S rRNA gene, were used for phylogenetic investigation of the mammalian order Perissodactyla. The primary objective of the study was to utilize the extensive fossil record of perissodactyls for calibrating molecular clocks and comparing estimates of divergence times using both genes and two fossil calibration points. Secondary objectives included clarification of previously unresolved relationships within Tapiridae and comparison of the results of separate and combined analyses of two genes. Analyses included several perissodactyl lineages representing all three families (Tapiridae, Equidae, and Rhinocerotidae), most extant genera, all four species of tapirs, two to four species of rhinoceros, and two species of Equus. The application of a relatively recent fossil calibration point and a relatively ancient calibration point produced greatly different estimates of evolutionary rates and divergence times for both genes, even though a relative rates test did not find significant rate differences among taxa. A likelihood-ratio test, however, rejected a molecular clock for both genes. Neither calibration point produced estimates of divergence times consistent with paleontological evidence over a range of perissodactyl radiations. The combined analysis of both genes produces a well-resolved phylogeny with Perissodactyla that conforms to traditional views of interfamilial relationships and supports monophyly of neotropical tapirs. Combining the data sets increases support for most nodes but decreases the support for a neotropical tapir clade because the COII and 12S rRNA data sets are in conflict for tapir relationships. Received: 6 January 1999 / Accepted: 2 August 1999     

Extracellular mannanases and galactanases from selected fungi

Summary Eight thermophilic fungi were tested for production of mannanases and galactanases. Highest mannanase activities were produced byTalaromyces byssochlamydoides andTalaromyces emersonii. Mannanases from all strains tested were induced by locust bean gum except in the case ofThermoascus aurantiacus, where mannose had a greater inducing effect. Locust bean gum was also the best inducer of -mannosidase and galactanase except in the case ofT. emersonii where galactose was a better inducer of both these enzymes. Highest mannanase activity was produced byTalaromyces species when peptone was used as nitrogen source whereas sodium nitrate promoted maximum production of this enzyme byThielavia terrestris andT. aurantiacus. The pH optima of mannanases from the thermophilic fungi were in the range 5.0–6.6 and contrasted with the low pH optimum (3.2) of the enzyme fromAspergillus niger. Galactanases had pH optima in the range 4.3–5.8. The mannanase fromT. emersonii and the galactanase fromT. terrestris were most thermostable, each retaining 100% activity for 3 h at 60°C.     

A new ‘tapir’ from Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada — Implications for northern high latitude palaeobiogeography and tapir palaeobiology

The oldest and northernmost record of the tapir lineage, Thuliadanta mayri gen. et sp. nov. from Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada (78°50′N) implies that tapiroid evolution was well underway by early Eocene (Wasatchian) time in northern high latitudes, and raises the possibility of a North American origin for the group. Phylogenetic analyses place the new Arctic tapir as the sister group to the later more advanced Desmatotherium, Colodon, and Irdinolophus. A phylogenetically-derived biogeographic reconstruction posed here suggests the tapir lineage may represent a rare instance of counterflow wherein an exotic North American taxon invaded Asia during the early Eocene. Moreover, Thuliadanta seems a plausible ancestor to Desmatotherium from both continents, suggesting that this branch of the tapir lineage may have originated at high latitudes and subsequently dispersed from there to mid-latitudes. Thuliadanta's occurrence on Ellesmere Island indicates that northern high latitudes should also be evaluated as a potential source area for some of the exotic taxa appearing in mid-latitudes during Eocene time. Using today's tapirs, and specifically the mountain tapir, as analogs, Thuliadanta seems a plausible year-round inhabitant in the mild temperate lowland forests of the Eocene High Arctic.     

Owl monkeys (Aotus) are highly divergent in mitochondrial Cytochromec Oxidase (COII) sequences

The evolutionary history and differentiation of the owl or night monkeys (Aotus),remain poorly resolved. Variation in pelage and skeletal morphology is relatively minor across their broad range, but cytogenetic studies have revealed that at least 12 karyotypically distinct forms exist, with 2Nchromosome numbers ranging from 46 to 58. We obtained DNA samples from three putative species- A. lemurinus, A. nancymae,and A. azarae-and five karyotypes (I, II, III, IV and VI), amplified the mitochondrial cytochrome coxidase subunit II gene (COII) via PCR and sequenced it. Comparisons of the sequences indicate relatively high levels of sequence divergence among the putative species (4.3 to 6.3%), and suggest that the taxa are genetically quite distinct and have likely experienced extended periods of isolated evolution. The levels of COII divergence represent approximately one- third of the levels found between divergent platyrrhine genera, such as Aotus, Saimiriand Callimico.Using estimates of substitution rates of COII evolution in hominoid primates,the estimated date of divergence for the AotusCOII sequences is 3.6 million years. The AotusCOII data support the existence of multiple species of Aotus,with origins predating late Pleistocene climatic events. Although A. nancymaeand A. azaraeboth live south of the Amazon River and have been considered members of the same species group, phylogenetic analysis of the COII sequences does not support a close relationship between them.     

Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur akustischen Kommunikation bei im Zoo gehaltenen Schabracken- und Flachlandtapiren (Tapirus indicus und Tapirus terrestris)

Until now, unlike their relatives, rhinos and horses tapirs have received considerably less attention in studies about communication. Therefore, it was the aim of this study to test which stimuli contain acoustical information for tapirs. For this purpose, the reactions of tapirs on acoustical stimuli (playback of different animal voices) were examined. Research visits took place at the zoos of Berlin, Dortmund, Heidelberg, Munich, Nuremberg and Osnabrück during the year 2005. A total of 20 individuals, thereof 8 (4.4) Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) and 12 (4.8) Lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) attended the experiments. The playback experiments showed that tapirs distinguish between the voices of different animal species. The results point to the conclusion that the reactions of the tapirs relate to phylogeny. The most intense interest was taken in their own species followed by the closely related ones.     

The key role of the largest extant Neotropical frugivore (Tapirus terrestris) in promoting admixture of plant genotypes across the landscape

The historical and contemporary loss of large‐bodied frugivores has disrupted many plant‐disperser mutualisms, with potentially profound consequences for plants. Although several aspects of seed dispersal by megafrugivores have already been examined, the role of these species in promoting seed‐mediated gene flow has remained unexplored. We evaluated the role of the Amazonian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), the largest Neotropical frugivore, in shaping plant genetic structure through seed‐mediated gene flow. We used microsatellites to analyze the genetic patterns of Syagrus romanzoffiana seedlings recruited in tapir latrines and around conspecific adult palms, the two sites where seeds and seedlings are most frequently found in this species. While the genetic diversity of seedlings was rather similar in both sites, the kinship structure was substantially weaker in latrines. Most seedlings recruited around adult palms were half‐ or full‐sibs originating from those adults. In contrast, seedlings recruited in latrines came from several (>5, on average) contributing mothers other than the nearest adult (95%) and were mostly non‐sibs (72%). Kinship patterns indicated that tapir‐mediated dispersal promotes the admixture of genotypes across space. Also, our results suggested that genetic diversity and the number of contributing mothers in latrines increase with the number of fruiting adults visited by tapirs before defecating and with the accumulation of feces over time. We provide evidence of the relevance of tapirs in mobilizing maternal progenies (and genotypes) across the landscape and recruiting clusters of unrelated seedlings. This study suggests a key role for plant–megafrugivore interactions in seed‐mediated gene flow and emphasizes the importance of preserving such mutualisms.     

Persistence of the effect of frugivore identity on post‐dispersal seed fate: consequences for the assessment of functional redundancy

Large frugivores play an important role as seed dispersers and their extinction may affect plant regeneration. The consequences of such extinctions depend on the likelihood of other species being functionally redundant and on how post‐dispersal events are affected. We assess the functional redundancy of two seed dispersers of the Atlantic Forest, the muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides) and the tapir (Tapirus terrestris) through the comparison of their seed dispersal quality, taking into account post‐dispersal events. We compare tapirs and muriquis for: (1) the dung beetle community associated with their feces; (2) the seed burial probability and burial depth by dung beetles; and (3) the seed mortality due to predators or other causes according to burial depth. We determine how seed burial affects seed dispersal effectiveness (SDE) and compare the dispersal quality of four plant species dispersed by these frugivores. Muriqui feces attract 16‐fold more dung beetles per gram of fecal matter and seeds experience 10.5‐fold more burial than seeds in tapir feces. In both feces types, seed mortality due to predation decreases with burial depth but seed mortality due to other causes increases. Total seed mortality differ within plant species according to the primary disperser. Therefore, the effect of seed burial on SDE varies according to the plant species, burial depth, and primary disperser. As tapirs and muriquis differently affect the seed fate, they are not functionally redundant. Since the effect of the primary disperser persists into the post‐dispersal events, we should consider the cascading effects of these processes when assessing functional redundancy.     

New fossil records of Tapirus (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Brazil, with a critical analysis of intra-generic diversity assessments based on lower molar size variability

A large set of South American fossils belonging to the genus Tapirus has been described on the basis of differences in size and proportions of lower molariform teeth. Nevertheless, the reliability of dental proportions for the diagnosis of fossil tapir species is controversial. In this paper, we describe new fossil material of Tapirus from the Quaternary of Serra da Bodoquena, Southwestern Brazil, comparing it to other fossil and extant specimens of the genus by means of multivariate morphometric analyses of lower molariform teeth linear dimensions. The results of Principal Component Analyses indicate that some of the extant and extinct material attributed to Tapirus fall within the range of variation in size and proportions of lower molariform teeth exhibited by recent species of the genus. Therefore, part of the fossil material attributed to new species or to Tapirus sp. may be referable to the extant species Tapirus terrestris. We conclude that the sole use of lower molariform teeth size and proportions to erect new species of Tapirus may not be reliable, and therefore we advocate caution when describing fossil tapirs exclusively based on these criteria.     

Interspecific variation in the tetradactyl manus of modern tapirs (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) exposed using geometric morphometrics

The distal forelimb (autopodium) of quadrupedal mammals is a key morphological unit involved in locomotion, body support, and interaction with the substrate. The manus of the tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus ) is unique within modern perissodactyls, as it retains the plesiomorphic tetradactyl (four‐toed) condition also exhibited by basal equids and rhinoceroses. Tapirs are known to exhibit anatomical mesaxonic symmetry in the manus, although interspecific differences and biomechanical mesaxony have yet to be rigorously tested. Here, we investigate variation in the manus morphology of four modern tapir species (Tapirus indicus , Tapirus bairdii , Tapirus pinchaque , and Tapirus terrestris ) using a geometric morphometric approach. Autopodial bones were laser scanned to capture surface shape and morphology was quantified using 3D‐landmark analysis. Landmarks were aligned using Generalised Procrustes Analysis, with discriminant function and partial least square analyses performed on aligned coordinate data to identify features that significantly separate tapir species. Overall, our results support the previously held hypothesis that T. indicus is morphologically separate from neotropical tapirs; however, previous conclusions regarding function from morphological differences are shown to require reassessment. We find evidence indicating that T. bairdii exhibits reduced reliance on the lateral fifth digit compared to other tapirs. Morphometric assessment of the metacarpophalangeal joint and the morphology of the distal facets of the lunate lend evidence toward high loading on the lateral digits of both the large T. indicus (large body mass) and the small, long limbed T. pinchaque (ground impact). Our results support other recent studies on T. pinchaque , suggesting subtle but important adaptations to a compliant but inclined habitat. In conclusion, we demonstrate further evidence that the modern tapir forelimb is a variable locomotor unit with a range of interspecific features tailored to habitual and biomechanical needs of each species.     

Spatial Pattern of Pindó Palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) Recruitment in Argentinian Atlantic Forest: The Importance of Tapir and Effects of Defaunation

Hunting pressure, fragmentation and deforestation have caused global declines in animal abundance, and the consequences for plant communities are poorly understood. Many large‐seeded plants, for instance, depend on large and endangered vertebrates for seed dispersal. In some Semi‐deciduous Atlantic Forests, endangered tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) are major dispersers of pindó palms (Syagrus romanzoffiana). Here, we compare recruitment patterns of pindó palms between protected and disturbed (defaunated) Atlantic Forest areas in Argentina and evaluate the potential consequences of the lack of the main disperser for pindó palm regeneration. We analyzed the number and spatial pattern of pindó adults, offspring, and tapir dung piles within ten plots established in an area spanning tapir latrines inside Iguazú National Park and in a fragmented forest area outside the park where tapir is locally extinct. In both areas, we evaluated recruitment levels beneath 24 adult palms in circular plots centered on adult stems. We found lower pindó palm recruitment outside the park where offspring tended to be aggregated around adult palms. In contrast, in Iguazú National Park offspring were spatially associated with tapir dung‐piles, in which most offspring were registered. Recruitment under adults was higher outside the park suggesting a lower rate of seed removal in disturbed areas. Our results show that tapir dispersal promotes higher recruitment levels of pindó offspring and shapes their spatial pattern, breaking the spatial association with adult (presumably maternal) palms. These results are useful for predicting the impact of local tapir extinction on this palm.     

Complete mitogenome reveals genetic divergence and phylogenetic relationships among Indian cattle (Bos indicus) breeds

Indigenous cattle of India belong to the species, Bos indicus and they possess various adaptability and production traits. However, little is known about the genetic diversity and origin of these breeds. To investigate the status, we sequenced and analyzed the whole mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of seven Indian cattle breeds. In total, 49 single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) were identified among the seven breeds analyzed. We observed a common synonymous SNV in the COII gene (m.7583G?>?A) of all the breeds studied. The phylogenetic analysis and genetic distance estimation showed the close genetic relationship among the Indian cattle breeds, whereas distinct genetic differences were observed between Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle. Our results indicate a common ancestor for European Zwergzebu breed and South Indian cattle. The estimated divergence time demonstrated that the Bos indicus and Bos taurus cattle lineages diverged 0.92 million years ago. Our study also demonstrates that ancestors of present zebu breeds originated in South and North India separately ～30,000 to 20,000 years ago. In conclusion, the identified genetic variants and results of the phylogenetic analysis may provide baseline information to develop appropriate strategies for management and conservation of Indian cattle breeds.     

Parasitoid-host relationship betweenTrioxys (Binodoxys) Indicus [Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae] andAphis Craccivora [Hemiptera: Aphididae]. VI. Impact of males on the number of progeny of the parasitoid reared on certain host plants

The present paper elucidates the impact of males on the reproductive rate ofTrioxys (Binodoxys) indicus reared on the aphids ofCajanus cajan, Dolichos lablab andSolanum melongena host plants. The F₁ offspring increases with the increase of parasitoid number. This increase is maximum inC. cajan followed byD. lablab andS. melongena reared aphids. The presence of male parasitoids caused a significant decrease in the emergence of F₁ generation.      

A Case Study of Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus) Husbandry Practice Across 10 Zoological Collections

The Malayan, or Asian, tapir (Tapirus indicus) has a diminishing wild population and is becoming more common in captivity as zoos attempt to manage sustainable ex situ populations. Tapirs can be relatively easy to maintain and breed, but captive animals appear to suffer from reduced activity budgets, obesity, and poor public image. A questionnaire‐based survey was designed and sent specifically to 10 collections around the world that exhibit Malayan tapirs, with the aim of assessing husbandry regimes to determine prevalence of standardized practices as well as highlighting any key differences, and to showcase good practice, thus providing information beneficial to those maintaining this species in their zoo. Twenty‐five animals were included in the survey from collections across four continents. The research's major conclusions show differing dietary make‐up, with a lack of forage provision, contrasting with a diverse array of enrichment protocols used. Significant differences were noted between zoos for total amount of food offered (P = 0.000) as well as ratios of forage to concentrate pellet offered (P = 0.004). Comparing food offered to male and female tapirs with published requirements for an “average” of either gender shows not all zoos providing the amount suggested in husbandry guidelines. Intelligently designed and original enrichment was provided to all animals but differences between zoos were noted in the application and “usefulness” of enrichment for individual tapir. Overall, animals are benefiting from enrichment but welfare could be further improved via consistent feeding of ad libitum forage and regular use of browse as a constituent part of daily rations. Zoo Biol. 32:347–356, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Molecular evolution among someDrosophila species groups as indicated by two-dimensional electrophoresis

Summary The evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships of sevenDrosophila species groups (represented byD. melanogaster, D. mulleri, D. mercatorum, D. robusta, D. virilis, D. immigrans, D. funebris, andD. melanica) were investigated by the use of two-dimensional electrophoresis. The resulting phylogeny is congruent with the current views of evolution among these groups based on morphological characters and immunological distances. Previous studies indicated that the ability of one-dimensional electrophoresis to resolve relationships between distantly related taxa extended to about the Miocene [25 million years (Myr) ago], but the present study demonstrates that two-dimensional electrophoresis is a useful indicator of phylogeny even back to the Paleocene (65 Myr ago). In addition, two-dimensional electrophoresis is shown to be a useful technique for detecting slowly evolving structural proteins such as actins and tropomyosins.     

Asian Tapirs Are No Elephants When It Comes To Seed Dispersal

The elimination of the largest herbivores (elephants and rhinoceroses) from many forests in tropical East Asia may have severe consequences for plant species that depend on them for seed dispersal. We assessed the capacity of Malayan tapirs Tapirus indicus—the next largest nonruminant herbivore in the region—as a substitute for the lost megafauna in this role by studying their ability to disperse the seeds of nine fleshy‐fruited plants with seeds 5–97 mm in length. We combined information from feeding trials, germination tests, and field telemetry to assess the effect of tapir consumption on seed viability and to estimate how far the seeds would be dispersed. The tapirs (N=8) ingested few seeds. Seed survival through gut passage was moderately high for small‐seeded plants (e.g., 36.9% for Dillenia indica) but very low for medium‐ (e.g., 7.6% for Tamarindus indica) and large‐seeded (e.g., 2.8% for Artocarpus integer) plants. Mean seed gut passage times were long (63–236 h) and only the smallest seeds germinated afterwards. Using movement data from four wild tapirs in Peninsular Malaysia we estimated mean dispersal distances of 917–1287 m (range=22–3289 m) for small‐seeded plants. Malayan tapirs effectively dispersed small‐seeded plants but acted as seed predators for the large‐seeded plants included in our study, suggesting that they cannot replace larger herbivores in seed dispersal. With the absence of elephants and rhinos many megafaunal‐syndrome plants in tropical East Asia are expected to face severe dispersal limitation problems.