雌性生殖道发育的分子基础

哺乳动物的雌性生殖道包括输卵管、子宫、宫颈和阴道,是卵子受精、早期胚胎发育、胚胎着床、孕体发育和分娩等的重要路径,对于哺乳动物的生殖非常重要.雌性生殖器官的发育异常和病变将导致妊娠失败和胎儿死亡,因而了解雌性生殖道的发育过程和分子调节机制有利于理解生殖相关疾病和改善雌性生殖力.目前,利用基因敲除小鼠等多种实验技术,人们发现了调节雌性生殖道发育和导致生殖道疾病的部分关键基因和调节机理,本文将总结近年来雌性生殖道的发育分子调控机制方面的研究进展,并阐述多种信号通路在生殖道发育过程中的交叉调节网络.     

哺乳动物滋养层细胞在胚胎植入中的作用

胚胎植入是哺乳动物生殖的关键环节,是一个非常复杂的过程.在胚胎植入过程中,多种着床相关因子、激素在母体-胚胎之间进行多重作用,引发复杂的生理作用,从而完成胚胎着床.在母体-胚胎界面上,胎源性滋养层细胞与母体子宫内膜细胞在信号联系（妊娠识别）和组织紧密连接（胚胎植入）过程中起着决定性作用,尤其是胚源性滋养层细胞,在胚胎植入过程中起主导作用.本文通过对滋养层细胞在胚胎植入中的作用的阐述,为进一步阐明胚胎植入的分子机制提供思路.     

胚胎的宫内和异位植入

胚胎植入是一个十分复杂的过程, 被认为是调控女性生育和发展避孕方法最理想的靶点和关键薄弱环节. 近几年, 该领域研究取得一定进展. 然而, 临床上的异位植入对胚胎正常植入的许多理论问题, 特别是对所谓的子宫“特异植入窗口”和子宫内膜-胚胎“特异对话”的概念提出了挑战. 在腹腔异位妊娠病例中, 少部分比例的妇女能完成全部妊娠过程, 生下发育正常的婴儿, 引起生殖生物学家的特别兴趣. 异位植入的事实表明, 对胚胎植入起决定作用的基因或分子可能不是来自母体, 而是来自胚胎, 母体组织只提供了胚胎发育的载体. 在加强正常和异常情况下胚胎植入细胞和分子生物学研究的基础上, 寻找和确定控制着床的内源和外源关键特异分子, 可为有效发展新一代抗胚胎植入特异避孕药物及寻找诊断和治疗异位妊娠提供理论依据.     

激活素A调控人类滋养细胞生物学特性的分子机制及其与胎盘源性妊娠疾病关系的研究进展

在人类妊娠建立过程中,胚胎滋养外胚层细胞与子宫内膜直接接触,严密介导母胎对话,调控胚胎着床、植入宫腔,并逐渐形成维持妊娠期间物质交换、营养供应的胎盘组织。起源于滋养外胚层的一部分滋养细胞(trophoblast)侵袭、迁移进入母体蜕膜组织,重塑子宫螺旋小动脉,对于胎盘形成和母胎血液循环建立至关重要。滋养细胞侵袭、迁移、增殖、凋亡、内皮特性获得等生物学特性异常是胚胎种植失败、自然流产、妊娠滋养细胞疾病、子痫前期、胎儿生长受限等胎盘源性妊娠疾病的重要因素。激活素A(activin A)作为转化生长因子β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)超家族中的一种分泌型蛋白,在妊娠期间母体循环及母胎界面表达丰富,在调控滋养细胞生物学特性以及妊娠的建立和维持中起重要作用。该文主要围绕激活素A调控人类滋养细胞生物学特性的分子机制及其在胎盘源性妊娠疾病中表达改变的研究进展进行综述。     

母-胎界面T细胞功能研究进展

母-胎界面免疫耐受是成功妊娠建立和维持的基础,T细胞是子宫蜕膜免疫细胞的重要组成细胞,既要介导抗感染免疫,保护胚胎免遭外来病原体攻击,同时又要参与母体接受同种异体胚胎的复杂免疫调节过程,在调控胚胎植入和维持妊娠过程中发挥重要作用,其功能失调可能会导致早期妊娠失败或中晚期妊娠并发症。本文就近年来关于妊娠期母-胎界面T细胞亚群的组成、表型特征及其功能进行介绍,并进一步阐述蜕膜CD4~+与CD8~+T细胞在母-胎免疫调节中的作用,以及异常调控致早期妊娠失败的分子机制,有助于深入理解母-胎免疫耐受机制,为妊娠相关疾病的防治提供新的线索。     

胚胎植入的调控机理

胚胎植入对于妊娠的建立和维持至关重要,需要活化的胚泡和接受态的子宫之间进行同步。在辅助生殖技术中,子宫接受态的判断仍是制约妊娠率的一个关键限制性因素。已有数据显示,胚胎植入涉及一系列信号分子的激活和失活,进而影响子宫腔上皮细胞的增殖与分化、上皮极性、宫腔闭合、胚胎定位、上皮基质反应、腺体发育等。本文就雌激素、孕酮、白血病抑制因子(leukemia inhibitory factor, LIF)、microRNA (miRNA)、通道蛋白、信号转导通路等在胚胎植入过程中的作用及其调控网络作一综述,以期为不孕症的治疗及安全有效的避孕药开发提供理论依据。     

斑马鱼胚胎背腹轴建立的分子机制

脊椎动物胚胎发育起始于体轴的建立,是胚胎早期发育过程中最重要的事件之一。Wnt、BMP、Nodal和FGF等多个信号通路协同调控细胞分化和细胞运动,促进胚胎胚层的形成和空间上的分离,调控胚胎背腹轴、前后轴和左右轴线的分化,为胚胎进一步发育勾勒出蓝图。本文主要综述斑马鱼胚胎背腹轴建立的分子机制,包括背部组织中心简介;母源Wnt/β-catenin信号调控背部组织中心形成的分子机制;BMP信号调控背腹轴建立的分子机制。     

RNA修饰调控造血发育和白血病发生的研究进展

胚胎造血发育和成体造血稳态维持是复杂有序、高度保守的过程,受到诸多因素,包括细胞内转录因子、信号通路及表观遗传修饰和细胞外造血微环境的精密调控. RNA修饰将表观修饰从转录水平提升到转录后精确调控的新层面,参与调控多项重要生命过程,其在血液发育及白血病发生中的调控作用已有多项研究.本文系统总结了RNA修饰在胚胎造血发育、稳态维持及白血病发生中的功能和分子机制,不仅有助于完善目前对造血系统发育以及正常造血和恶性转化的认识,而且为寻找潜在的白血病治疗靶点提供了新思路.     

胚胎附植期GRB7基因在绵羊子宫内膜中的mRNA表达

旨在探讨生长因子受体结合蛋白7(growth factor receptor bound 7,GRB7)在绵羊胚胎附植期子宫内膜中m RNA的表达模式。应用半定量RT-PCR和实时荧光定量RT-PCR分别检测21 d怀孕母羊全身组织和妊娠第9、13、17、21及25天的怀孕与未孕母羊子宫内膜组织GRB7基因的表达。半定量RT-PCR结果显示,GRB7基因在心脏、皱胃、大肠、小肠、瘤胃、下丘脑、大脑、小脑等组织均未检测出表达,在脾脏、垂体、肾脏、输卵管、卵巢、膀胱及子宫体等组织出现表达,其中在子宫体、输卵管及肾脏中呈现较高表达;实时荧光定量PCR结果显示,从绵羊妊娠第9-25天阶段,GRB7基因在母羊子宫内膜组织的表达量呈逐渐上升趋势,孕羊GRB7的表达量均显著高于同一时间点同期发情的未孕母羊。结果表明GRB7的m RNA表达具有组织特异性,在胚胎附植期绵羊子宫内膜中的m RNA表达显著升高,表明GRB7可能在早期胚胎附植中发挥一定作用。     

胚胎植入研究的进展与展望

胚胎与母体子宫第一次亲密接触并相互对话,进而建立起直接生理联系的过程被称为胚胎植入。这一过程的正常发生与否决定着胚胎能否继续发育和最终的妊娠结局。正常育龄妇女每个月经周期妊娠成功率只有30%左右,其中近70%的妊娠失败被认为是发生在胚胎植入环节。胚胎植入的成功发生需要具有植入能力的囊胚和处于接受态的子宫之间同步互作并建立起直接的生理联系。在临床的辅助生殖诊疗中,尽管形态正常的胚胎移植到子宫中,妊娠的成功率也只有50%左右,这其中子宫接受态的异常被认为是一个很关键的、急需克服的限制因素。反之,更为可靠的胚胎质量判断标准是辅助生殖治疗研究中的另一个关键问题。针对子宫接受态建立和囊胚激活这两个决定胚胎植入成败的关键事件,阐述了胚胎植入领域近年来的研究进展,介绍了国内科学家在该领域所做的贡献,同时简要探讨了本领域发展面临的问题以及出路,以使读者能明晰胚胎植入这一重要生理过程发生的分子基础以及该领域面临的挑战和未来发展方向。     

Cellular mechanisms of implantation in domestic farm animals

In order for pregnancy to be established, the conceptus of domestic animals must signal its presence upon arrival in the uterus, a process known as maternal recognition of pregnancy. The conceptus derived signal(s) prevent(s) the structural and functional demise of the corpus luteum to ensure the maintenance of a uterine environment that supports implantation and embryonic development. Implantation is a remarkable event that has been described as a biological paradox because an adhesive interaction is formed between two apical surfaces of epithelial cell types that are typically covered by non-adhesive glycoproteins. In domestic animals (such as pigs, horses, sheep, does and cows), the implantation process is not invasive as it is in most other mammalian species. This review describes the interaction between the conceptus (embryo and surrounding membranes) and the uterine epithelial surface in domestic farm animals and ability of the conceptus to control the lifespan of the corpus luteum to maintain pregnancy.     

Developmental biology of uterine glands.

All mammalian uteri contain endometrial glands that synthesize or transport and secrete substances essential for survival and development of the conceptus (embryo/fetus and associated extraembryonic membranes). In rodents, uterine secretory products of the endometrial glands are unequivocally required for establishment of uterine receptivity and conceptus implantation. Analyses of the ovine uterine gland knockout model support a primary role for endometrial glands and, by default, their secretions in peri-implantation conceptus survival and development. Uterine adenogenesis is the process whereby endometrial glands develop. In humans, this process begins in the fetus, continues postnatally, and is completed during puberty. In contrast, endometrial adenogenesis is primarily a postnatal event in sheep, pigs, and rodents. Typically, endometrial adenogenesis involves differentiation and budding of glandular epithelium from luminal epithelium, followed by invagination and extensive tubular coiling and branching morphogenesis throughout the uterine stroma to the myometrium. This process requires site-specific alterations in cell proliferation and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling as well as paracrine cell-cell and cell-ECM interactions that support the actions of specific hormones and growth factors. Studies of uterine development in neonatal ungulates implicate prolactin, estradiol-17 beta, and their receptors in mechanisms regulating endometrial adenogenesis. These same hormones appear to regulate endometrial gland morphogenesis in menstruating primates and humans during reconstruction of the functionalis from the basalis endometrium after menses. In sheep and pigs, extensive endometrial gland hyperplasia and hypertrophy occur during gestation, presumably to provide increasing histotrophic support for conceptus growth and development. In the rabbit, sheep, and pig, a servomechanism is proposed to regulate endometrial gland development and differentiated function during pregnancy that involves sequential actions of ovarian steroid hormones, pregnancy recognition signals, and lactogenic hormones from the pituitary or placenta. That disruption of uterine development during critical organizational periods can alter the functional capacity and embryotrophic potential of the adult uterus reinforces the importance of understanding the developmental biology of uterine glands. Unexplained high rates of peri-implantation embryonic loss in humans and livestock may reflect defects in endometrial gland morphogenesis due to genetic errors, epigenetic influences of endocrine disruptors, and pathological lesions.     

Influence of progesterone on oocyte quality and embryo development in cows

In cattle, the majority of embryo loss occurs very early during pregnancy (approximately Day 16), around or prior to maternal recognition of pregnancy. The actions of P4 in controlling LH pulsatility and ovarian follicular development may impinge negatively on oocyte quality. A considerable proportion of embryo loss may be attributable to inadequate circulating progesterone (P4) concentrations and the subsequent downstream consequences on endometrial gene expression and histotroph secretion into the uterine lumen. Conceptus growth and development require the action of P4 on the uterus to regulate endometrial function, including conceptus–maternal interactions, pregnancy recognition, and uterine receptivity for implantation. This review summarizes recent data highlighting the role of progesterone in determining oocyte quality and embryo development in cattle.     

Biochemical aspects of conceptus--endometrial interactions

Mammalian conceptuses must provide a chemical signal to the maternal system to insure maintenance of corpus luteum (CL) function and of progesterone production and continuation of uterine endometrial secretory activity. These events insure that the developing conceptus is provided with appropriate nutrients, regulatory enzymes and endocrine state to allow successful establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. Pig blastocysts begin to produce estrogens by Day 11 of pregnancy, which prevents secretion of the uterine luteolytic factor (PGF2 alpha) in an endocrine direction, but allows secretion in an exocrine direction, i.e., into the uterine lumen. Therefore, CL are "protected." Blastocyst estrogens also trigger secretion of a group of proteins, including uteroferrin, an iron transport protein, and a family of protease inhibitors whose biosynthesis within the uterine glandular epithelium is under the control of progesterone. Estrogen also appears to promote accumulation of glucose and fructose within the uterine lumen. A complex in vivo "culture medium" is thereby established to promote conceptus development. Pig blastocysts do not undergo invasive implantation within the uterine lumen although they produce the protease, plasminogen activator. Invasion may be prevented by endometrial secretion of progesterone-induced protease inhibitors which are produced in large amounts. In addition to estrogens of conceptus origin, calcium and prostaglandins PGF2 alpha and E2 may affect the uterine vasculature, water and electrolyte transport, capillary permeability, conceptus steroid production, and related events during pregnancy. The blastocysts of the large domestic animals also secrete proteins which include a large glycoprotein (Mr approximately 600,000) and a small acidic protein (Mr approximately 17,000). The latter has been purified from sheep and named ovine trophoblast protein I. These proteins may play unique roles in early pregnancy with respect to establishment and maintenance of pregnancy in the ewe, sow, mare, and cow.     

Leptin in pregnancy: an update

Leptin influences satiety, adiposity, and metabolism and is associated with mechanisms regulating puberty onset, fertility, and pregnancy in various species. Maternal hyperleptinemia is a hallmark of mammalian pregnancy, although both the roles of leptin and the mechanisms regulating its synthesis appear to be taxa specific. In pregnant humans and nonhuman primates, leptin is produced by both maternal and fetal adipose tissues, as well as by the placental trophoblast. Specific receptors in the uterine endometrium, trophoblast, and fetus facilitate direct effects of the polypeptide on implantation, placental endocrine function, and conceptus development. A soluble isoform of the receptor may be responsible for inducing maternal leptin resistance during pregnancy and/or may facilitate the transplacental passage of leptin for the purpose of directly regulating fetal development. The steroid hormones are linked to the regulation of leptin and the leptin receptor and probably interact with other pregnancy-specific, serum-borne factors to regulate leptin dynamics during pregnancy. In addition to its effects on normal conceptus development, leptin is linked to mechanisms affecting a diverse array of pregnancy-specific pathologies that include preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and intrauterine growth restriction. Association with these anomalies and with mechanisms pointing to a fetal origin for a range of conditions affecting the individual's health in adult life, such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease, reiterate the need for continued research dedicated to elucidating leptin's roles and regulation throughout gestation.     

Uterine histotroph and conceptus development: select nutrients and secreted phosphoprotein 1 affect mechanistic target of rapamycin cell signaling in ewes

Interferon tau (IFNT), the pregnancy recognition signal in ruminants, abrogates the uterine luteolytic mechanism to ensure maintenance of function for the corpora lutea to produce progesterone (P4). IFNT also suppresses expression of classical IFN-stimulated genes by uterine lumenal epithelium (LE) and superficial glandular (sGE) epithelium but, acting in concert with progesterone, affects expression of a multitude of genes critical to growth and development of the conceptus. The LE and sGE secrete proteins and transport nutrients into the uterine lumen necessary for conceptus development, pregnancy recognition signaling, and implantation. Secretions include arginine and secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1). Arginine can be metabolized to nitric oxide and to polyamines or act directly to activate the mechanistic target of rapamycin cell signaling pathway to stimulate proliferation, migration, and mRNA translation in trophectoderm cells. SPP1 binds alphavbeta3 and alpha5beta1 integrins to induce focal adhesion assembly, adhesion, and migration of conceptus trophectoderm cells during implantation. Thus, arginine and SPP1 mediate growth, migration, cytoskeletal remodeling, and adhesion of trophectoderm essential for pregnancy recognition signaling and implantation. This minireview focuses on components of histotroph that affect conceptus development in the ewe.