Dietary Intake of Pesticides Based on Vegetable Consumption in Ismailia,Egypt: A Case Study

The objective of this study was to assess pesticide residues in tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, strawberries, and potatoes collected from local markets in Ismailia, Egypt, and to assess dietary intake and health risk implications of pesticide residues through food consumption. Vegetable selection was based on their popularity and consumption. Selection of pesticides was based on their impact on humans, and on their heavy use. The majority of the analyzed samples contained detectable levels of pesticides. Residues of some organophosphorus pesticides, including malathion, ethion, and profenofos and some pyrethroid pesticides such as fenpropathrin and cypermethrin were found in some samples at concentration equal to or exceeding their European Union's maximum residue limits (EU-MRLs). The fungicide bupirimate detected in potato samples exceeded the EU-MRL by 1500%. Phentohate and profenofos were the most frequently detected pesticides in 30 and 27% of analyzed samples, respectively. Data were used to estimate the potential health risks associated with exposure to these pesticides by ingestion of food. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of pesticides ranged from 0.03% to 40% of the acceptable daily intakes (ADIs), depending on pesticide concentration and vegetable consumption. Overall, the EDIs of the different pesticides from vegetable consumption are not considered a public health problem.     

Limitation of point source pesticide pollution: results of bioremediation system

Groundwater and surface water is at risk of contamination from the use of some agricultural pesticides. In many circumstances pesticide contamination of water resources is more likely to result from point sources than from diffuse sources following approved application to crops in the field. Such point sources include areas on farms where pesticides are handled, filled into sprayers or where sprayers are washed down. To overcome this way of contamination different kind of bio-remediation systems are nowadays in development. In Flanders, Belgium two pilot plants of bioremediation systems for the in situ retention and/or degradation of pesticides were installed. Both systems were based on the Phytobac concept, a watertight excavation filled with straw, peat, compost and soil. The channel was made in the bottom from plastic foil. All kinds of spray rests were captured by the phytobacs. This study focuses on what level pesticides leach, bio-degrade or are retained by the filling of the phytobac. The soil-properties of the filling were investigated. Pesticide tracers were added for monitoring to both phytobacs. Soil and water samples were taken during one year. Pesticides are retained at least for one month by the filling of the phytobac. Almost no pesticide leached out. In winter hardly any pesticide degradation was observed in the filling of the phytobac. In summer no detectable pesticides were still left in the phytobacs.     

Challenges and Research Needs for Risk Assessment of Pesticides for Registration in Africa

Risk assessment is necessary for registration and risk management of new pesticides. The aim of this article is to discuss challenges that risk assessors in Africa face when conducting risk assessment of pesticides. Risk assessment requires toxicity assessment, environmental fate studies, and the use of models for occupational, dietary, residential, and environmental exposure assessments. Toxicity studies are very costly with the result that toxicity data used to register pesticides in Africa are often sourced from northern hemisphere countries. Assessors also often use exposure modeling results from the northern hemisphere. This is not an ideal approach as occupational exposure is influenced by agricultural practices, climatic conditions, and other factors. Furthermore, residential exposure models require time-location-activity information, exposure factors, and toxicokinetic rate constants for particular pesticides. Dietary exposure assessment needs accurate and comprehensive local food consumption data. Authorities in African countries should therefore generate the required data, despite these being very costly and tedious. Authorities should also provide guidance on the type of models and standard scenarios for estimating predicted environmental concentrations in various environmental compartments. It is recommended that higher educational institutions in Africa should incorporate risk assessment in general and pesticide toxicity and exposure models in particular in their curricula.     

Pesticides in the Cagayan valley (Philippines): usage, drift patterns and the exposure of farmers differing in income and market access

Over the past ten years, the amount and number of different types of pesticides have increased significantly, which led to a growing concern about the possible adverse effects on human health and the environment. This is particularly true for countries where regulations are not strictly implemented and farmers' knowledge of safe handling is often inadequate. This paper discusses the results of a series of spray experiments to determine drift patterns along field boundaries and the exposure of farmers during their usual spraying exercises. Moreover, farmers' pesticide usage and methods of application will be described, and the effects of income and market accessibility on pesticide use patterns will be investigated. It is based on a study conducted in four villages located at increasing distance from the national highway leading to regional markets and connecting the Cagayan Valley in Northeast Luzon with Manila. The 20 pesticides encountered in this study cover 18 different active ingredients, 9 of which are classified by the WHO as 'highly hazardous' or 'moderately hazardous'. The EPA has classified at least 6 of the encountered pesticide formulations as Restricted Use Pesticides. Nevertheless, all pesticides are freely sold in stores or on markets and applied by farmers without personal protection in an unsafe manner. The farmers living nearest to the highway have the highest income and largest farms. Yet they are most at risk, having easiest access to pesticides and spraying the largest quantities of pesticides per hectare, compared to the farmers living at greater distance from the highway. It is recommended to review the list of pesticides approved for use in the Philippines and discern between Restricted and General Use Pesticides. Several recommendations for improving the implementation of pesticide policies and the IPM program are given.     

Assessment of the genotoxic impact of pesticides on farming communities in the countryside of Santa Catarina State, Brazil

The aim of this study was to assess the use of pesticides on farms located in the Lambedor River watershed in Guatambu, State of Santa Catarina, as well as to determine, by micronucleus testing, the risk of genotoxic impact. Samples from locally collected Cyprinus carpio, Hypostomus punctatus, Rhamdia quelen and Oreochromis niloticus gave evidence of a mean increase in micronuclei frequency from 6.21 to 13.78 in 1,000 erythrocytes, a clear indication of the genotoxic potenciality of pesticide residues in regional dams, and their significant contribution to local environmental contamination.     

我国主粮作物的化学农药用量及其温室气体排放估算

现代农业中化学农药在提高作物产量中发挥着重要的作用,但是我国普遍存在过量用药现象,导致环境污染和危害食品安全.基于2012年的全国性农户问卷调查,本研究分析了2011年我国水稻、小麦和玉米使用农药现状,并估算了它们的温室气体排放.结果表明: 这3种作物至少使用了54种杀虫剂、24种杀菌剂和50种除草剂,其中32%的水稻种植农户使用了生物农药.全国3种作物使用了30.8 kt杀虫剂、16.5 kt杀菌剂和58.3 kt除草剂,它们的温室气体排放总量为1.5 Tg Ce,杀虫剂、杀菌剂和除草剂的排放分别占23.8%、16.9%和59.3%.南方区的农药用量占全国用量的51%;全国水稻、小麦和玉米的单位产量农药用量分别是0.22、0.18和0.24 g·kg^-1粮食,3种作物用药总量分别为44.4、21.4和39.7 kt,温室气体排放分别为665.5、250.1和547.5 Gg Ce;在不同农药种类中,有机磷类杀虫剂占我国所用杀虫剂总量的69%,苯丙咪唑类、有机磷类、唑类和有机硫类等杀菌剂占杀菌剂总量的87%,酰胺类、有机杂环类和有机磷类等除草剂占除草剂总量的85%.因此,减少农药用量,对于我国粮食安全和环境安全及减少农业温室气体排放都具有重要意义.     

Estimation of dermal exposure to pesticides and its use in risk assessment

The potential risks to humans resulting from the usage of a pesticide must be carefully assessed before the product is registered. One of the components in the risk assessment is the determination of the amount of pesticide to which the applicator is exposed. Traditional methods estimated dermal exposure by measuring the amount of pesticide deposited on absorbent patches worn on the applicator's body. A more recent approach consists of measuring urinary metabolite levels. A review of data obtained in humans and in rats suggests that the urinary concentration of dimethyl thiophosphate is a good indicator of dermal exposure to azinphos-methyl.     

Approaches to valuation in LCA impact assessment

One of the major problems with the future development of lifecycle assessment is the difficulty in converting lifecycle inventory results into environmental impacts, owing to problems associated with the interpretation and weighting of the data. The four main valuation approaches: distance-to-target, environmental control costs, environmental damage costs and scoring approaches are assessed and the individual methodologies evaluated. In conclusion it is considered that in a country which has clear, up-to-date, politically acceptable emission standards, a distance-to-target valuation system maybe acceptable. However, these circumstances are likely to be rare, and the choice of standards arbitrary and not scientifically based. Therefore a better choice is probably environmental damage costs, provided suitable economic damage figures are available.     

Why pesticides with mutagenic,carcinogenic and reproductive risks are registered in Brazil

Brazil is the biggest market for pesticides in the world. In the registration process, a pesticide must be authorized by the Institute of the Environment, Health Surveillance Agency and Ministry of Agriculture. Evaluations follow a package of toxicological studies submitted by the companies and also based on the Brazilian law regarding pesticides. We confronted data produced by private laboratories, submitted to the Institute of the Environment for registration, with data obtained from scientific databases, corresponding to mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of pesticides. All studies submitted by the companies were carried out by private laboratories. From 247 pesticide formulations analyzed, none showed positive results for mutagenicity, carcinogenicity or teratogenicity. From 574 articles in the scientific literature, 84% published by public laboratories showed positive results, while 79% of those showing negative results came from private laboratories. There is an ethical concern about a conflict of interest between public/independent laboratories and private laboratories that produce data for registering pesticides. We demonstrated that there is a clear contradiction between public and private laboratories. Brazilian regulatory authorities have approved the registration of pesticides based almost exclusively on the monographs provided by the pesticide industry, because the use of scientific articles or information from the independent literature is strongly belittled by the industry. Pesticide companies argue that scientific articles cannot be trusted. Also, according to the industry, pesticide registration cannot be refused based on results from scientific articles. Thus, the registration of pesticides with mutagenic, carcinogenic and teratogenic risks has been approved in Brazil.     

Long- and Short-Term Health Effects of Pesticide Exposure: A Cohort Study from China

Pesticides are extensively used by farmers in China. However, the effects of pesticides on farmers’ health have not yet been systematically studied. This study evaluated the effects of pesticides exposure on hematological and neurological indicators over 3 years and 10 days respectively. A cohort of 246 farmers was randomly selected from 3 provinces (Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Hebei) in China. Two rounds of health investigations, including blood tests and neurological examinations, were conducted by medical doctors before and after the crop season in 2012. The data on pesticide use in 2009–2011 were collected retrospectively via face-to-face interviews and the 2012 data were collected from personal records maintained by participants prospectively. Ordinary least square (OLS), Probit, and fixed effect models were used to evaluate the relationship between pesticides exposure frequency and the health indicators. Long-term pesticide exposure was found to be associated with increased abnormality of nerve conductions, especially in sensory nerves. It also affected a wide spectrum of health indicators based on blood tests and decreased the tibial nerve compound muscle action potential amplitudes. Short-term health effects included alterations in complete blood count, hepatic and renal functions, and nerve conduction velocities and amplitudes. However, these effects could not be detected after 3 days following pesticide exposure. Overall, our results demonstrate that pesticide exposure adversely affects blood cells, the liver, and the peripheral nervous system. Future studies are needed to elucidate the specific effects of each pesticide and the mechanisms of these effects.     

A Review and Evaluation of Plant Protection Product Ranking Tools Used in Agriculture

Pesticides used in the agricultural sector could potentially negatively impact the ecosystem, and consequently human and animal health. At the European level, legislation such as European Directive 67/548EEC stipulates that prior to the use of plant protection products, a risk assessment has to be performed. Due to the large number of chemicals used worldwide, it is practically impossible to implement a full quantitative risk assessment for all chemicals. Therefore, chemical ranking systems can be used as an initial screening of pesticides with the view to identifying those requiring further analysis. Nineteen commonly used pesticide ranking tools were evaluated according to: scale of intervention; environmental compartments; human and ecosystem effects; and stage of development and functionality. The tools were assigned a numerical score (maximum of 15) based on their fulfilment of these criteria. This facilitated identification of tools that could be used for a given set of input data and user requirements. The results showed great diversity with total scores between 6 and 13.5. The advantages and disadvantages of each individual model are described. Care needs to be taken in selecting a pesticide ranking tool that fulfills the required criteria in terms of scale, effects, functionality, and environmental compartments analyzed.     

Choosing Organic Pesticides over Synthetic Pesticides May Not Effectively Mitigate Environmental Risk in Soybeans

Background

Selection of pesticides with small ecological footprints is a key factor in developing sustainable agricultural systems. Policy guiding the selection of pesticides often emphasizes natural products and organic-certified pesticides to increase sustainability, because of the prevailing public opinion that natural products are uniformly safer, and thus more environmentally friendly, than synthetic chemicals.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We report the results of a study examining the environmental impact of several new synthetic and certified organic insecticides under consideration as reduced-risk insecticides for soybean aphid (Aphis glycines) control, using established and novel methodologies to directly quantify pesticide impact in terms of biocontrol services. We found that in addition to reduced efficacy against aphids compared to novel synthetic insecticides, organic approved insecticides had a similar or even greater negative impact on several natural enemy species in lab studies, were more detrimental to biological control organisms in field experiments, and had higher Environmental Impact Quotients at field use rates.

Conclusions/Significance

These data bring into caution the widely held assumption that organic pesticides are more environmentally benign than synthetic ones. All pesticides must be evaluated using an empirically-based risk assessment, because generalizations based on chemical origin do not hold true in all cases.     

Life cycle impact assessment of pesticides

Pesticides are biologically active substances that are directly released to the environment during the use phase of their life cycle. Pesticides are widely used and play an important role in the production of vital goods such as food, feedstuffs and cotton. The Discussion Forum 19 focused on the impact assessment of pesticides applied in agriculture. The discussion forum started with three talks about new approaches to estimate pesticide emissions and to assess their fate in the environment. The following short presentations illustrated the application of some of these methods in case studies and highlighted the problem of data availability. The last two presentations provided insight into risk assessment models used for pesticide registration from a company perspective and from the viewpoint of the authorities.     

Acute human lethal toxicity of agricultural pesticides: a prospective cohort study

Background

Agricultural pesticide poisoning is a major public health problem in the developing world, killing at least 250,000–370,000 people each year. Targeted pesticide restrictions in Sri Lanka over the last 20 years have reduced pesticide deaths by 50% without decreasing agricultural output. However, regulatory decisions have thus far not been based on the human toxicity of formulated agricultural pesticides but on the surrogate of rat toxicity using pure unformulated pesticides. We aimed to determine the relative human toxicity of formulated agricultural pesticides to improve the effectiveness of regulatory policy.

Methods and Findings

We examined the case fatality of different agricultural pesticides in a prospective cohort of patients presenting with pesticide self-poisoning to two clinical trial centers from April 2002 to November 2008. Identification of the pesticide ingested was based on history or positive identification of the container. A single pesticide was ingested by 9,302 patients. A specific pesticide was identified in 7,461 patients; 1,841 ingested an unknown pesticide. In a subset of 808 patients, the history of ingestion was confirmed by laboratory analysis in 95% of patients. There was a large variation in case fatality between pesticides—from 0% to 42%. This marked variation in lethality was observed for compounds within the same chemical and/or WHO toxicity classification of pesticides and for those used for similar agricultural indications.

Conclusion

The human data provided toxicity rankings for some pesticides that contrasted strongly with the WHO toxicity classification based on rat toxicity. Basing regulation on human toxicity will make pesticide poisoning less hazardous, preventing hundreds of thousands of deaths globally without compromising agricultural needs. Ongoing monitoring of patterns of use and clinical toxicity for new pesticides is needed to identify highly toxic pesticides in a timely manner. Please see later in the article for the Editors'' Summary     

Effects of Agricultural Management Policies on the Exposure of Black-Winged Stilts (Himantopus himantopus) Chicks to Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticides in Rice Fields

Levels of exposure to pesticides in rice fields can be significant depending on the environmental policies practiced. The aim of European Union integrated management policy is to reduce pesticide use and impact on environment. Rice fields provide an alternative breeding habitat for many waterbirds that are exposed to the pesticides used and therefore can be valuable indicators of their risk for wildlife. To evaluate integrated management success we examined exposure of Black-winged Stilts (Himantopus himantopus) to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides in rice fields under different types of management by measuring plasma cholinesterase activity. Cholinesterase activity was lower in birds sampled in (a) 2008 after a period of intense pesticide application, than in (b) 2005-2007 and 2011 in rice fields subject to integrated management in Doñana (SW Spain) and (c) in control natural wetlands in Spain and Morocco. During 2009 and 2010, cholinesterase activity was lower in rice fields in Doñana than in rice fields in Larache and Sidi Allal Tazi (NW Morocco). Our results suggest that integrated management successfully reduced the exposure of Black-winged Stilts to pesticides in most of the years. Care should be taken to implement mosquito and pest crop controls on time and with environmentally friendly products in order to reduce its impact on wildlife.     

A method for comparing pesticide usage patterns between farmers

A method is described for standardizing data from surveys of insecticide and fungicide usage, to enable comparisons to be made between farmers. Pesticide usage by the fruit and vegetable farmers surveyed was initially coded in units, and then standardized by taking each farmer's deviation from a regional average for the crop, expressed as standard measure. The vegetable farmers studied were less variable in their usage of pesticides for the control of aphid, caterpillar and blight on crops harvested late in the season rather than early (cabbage, lettuce, potatoes and sprouts). There was evidence that farmers did not heed the Beaumont period warnings issued by the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service (ADAS) for blight attack on potatoes. Also on potato crops, insecticide use against aphids was influenced by the level of fungicide usage for blight control. Standardized insecticide and fungicide usage values for individual farmers were very uniform. A two-way analysis of variance showed that most of the variation in the model was accounted for by variation between farmers rather than by variation between crops on the same farm. By expressing pesticide usage data in this standardized form, one can measure the element in pesticide usage which is not related to pest incidence. This can then be used to study the influence of other factors on pesticide usage.     

Prenatal exposure to pesticides: analysis of human placental acetylcholinesterase, glutathione S-transferase and catalase as biomarkers of effect.

Pre- and perinatal exposure to pesticides is deleterious on foetal and neonatal development, but information regarding possible effects on environmental low-dose exposure to pesticides is scarce. Most epidemiological studies of the health effect of pesticides have been based on self-reported information. However, detailed information on past pesticide use is difficult to reconstruct. This is a current study conducted among pregnant mothers attending a delivery care and perinatal programme at a public hospital. The study investigates biomarkers of early effects in placentas from women living in an area with an intensive use of pesticides in the northern part of Patagonia, province of Río Negro, Argentina, and it assesses the consistency of the information provided by self-reports. The study confirms that placental acetylcholinesterase and catalase activities are significantly associated with periods of organophosphorus pesticides application, while glutathione S-transferase is not affected. We found a positive correlation between environmental exposure to organophosphorus pesticides and carbamate insecticides and newborn head circumference. The findings provide a further indication of a link between placenta acetylcholinesterase and catalase activity and prenatal exposure to pesticides in population studies. Both placenta enzymes may be used as biomarkers in health surveillance programmes for early diagnosis of exposure related alterations produced by organophosphorus pesticides and carbamate pesticides.     

Assessing Health Risks from Pesticides in Recycled Water: A Case Study of Augmentation of Drinking Water Supplies in Perth,Western Australia

A characterization of pesticides in secondary treated effluent (STE) and a screening health risk assessment were conducted to evaluate potential health impacts of recycled water for potable reuse. Samples of STE were examined pre- and post-reverse osmosis (RO) treatment in two plants. Risk quotients (RQ) were estimated by expressing the maximum and median concentration as a function of the health value. Of 128 pesticides analyzed, 11 were detected in STE. Trifluralin was detected in 86.5% of the STE samples followed by metolachlor (67.6%), 2,4-D (50%), and propiconazole (42.5%). Metolachlor was the only pesticide detected post-RO in one sample (0.08 μg/L, limit of reporting = 0.05 μg/L). RQ(max) were all below health values in the STE with the exception of thiophanate methyl (RQ max = 2.4). RO was able to reduce the concentration of all pesticides below LOR. Median removal efficiency for RO ranged from 67.1% (atrazine) to 98.8% (2,4-D). The results indicate that, despite the detection of pesticides in STE, the impact on indirect potable reuse is negligible due to the low concentrations in STE and their subsequent removal during RO treatment. Implementation of risk management strategies to optimize safety and recommendations for a monitoring program are also discussed.     

Prenatal exposure to pesticides: analysis of human placental acetylcholinesterase,glutathione S-transferase and catalase as biomarkers of effect

Pre- and perinatal exposure to pesticides is deleterious on foetal and neonatal development, but information regarding possible effects on environmental low-dose exposure to pesticides is scarce. Most epidemiological studies of the health effect of pesticides have been based on self-reported information. However, detailed information on past pesticide use is difficult to reconstruct. This is a current study conducted among pregnant mothers attending a delivery care and perinatal programme at a public hospital. The study investigates biomarkers of early effects in placentas from women living in an area with an intensive use of pesticides in the northern part of Patagonia, province of Río Negro, Argentina, and it assesses the consistency of the information provided by self-reports. The study confirms that placental acetylcholinesterase and catalase activities are significantly associated with periods of organophosphorus pesticides application, while glutathione S-transferase is not affected. We found a positive correlation between environmental exposure to organophosphorus pesticides and carbamate insecticides and newborn head circumference. The findings provide a further indication of a link between placenta acetylcholinesterase and catalase activity and prenatal exposure to pesticides in population studies. Both placenta enzymes may be used as biomarkers in health surveillance programmes for early diagnosis of exposure related alterations produced by organophosphorus pesticides and carbamate pesticides.     

Toxic temperatures: Bee behaviours exhibit divergent pesticide toxicity relationships with warming

Climate change and agricultural intensification are exposing insect pollinators to temperature extremes and increasing pesticide usage. Yet, we lack good quantification of how temperature modulates the sublethal effects of pesticides on behaviours vital for fitness and pollination performance. Consequently, we are uncertain if warming decreases or increases the severity of different pesticide impacts, and whether separate behaviours vary in the direction of response. Quantifying these interactive effects is vital in forecasting pesticide risk across climate regions and informing pesticide application strategies and pollinator conservation. This multi-stressor study investigated the responses of six functional behaviours of bumblebees when exposed to either a neonicotinoid (imidacloprid) or a sulfoximine (sulfoxaflor) across a standardised low, mid, and high temperature. We found the neonicotinoid had a significant effect on five of the six behaviours, with a greater effect at the lower temperature(s) when measuring responsiveness, the likelihood of movement, walking rate, and food consumption rate. In contrast, the neonicotinoid had a greater impact on flight distance at the higher temperature. Our findings show that different organismal functions can exhibit divergent thermal responses, with some pesticide-affected behaviours showing greater impact as temperatures dropped, and others as temperatures rose. We must therefore account for environmental context when determining pesticide risk. Moreover, we found evidence of synergistic effects, with just a 3°C increase causing a sudden drop in flight performance, despite seeing no effect of pesticide at the two lower temperatures. Our findings highlight the importance of multi-stressor studies to quantify threats to insects, which will help to improve dynamic evaluations of population tipping points and spatiotemporal risks to biodiversity across different climate regions.