Photochemical properties of the flavin mononucleotide-binding domains of the phototropins from Arabidopsis,rice, and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Phototropins (phot1 and phot2, formerly designated nph1 and npl1) are blue-light receptors that mediate phototropism, blue light-induced chloroplast relocation, and blue light-induced stomatal opening in Arabidopsis. Phototropins contain two light, oxygen, or voltage (LOV) domains at their N termini (LOV1 and LOV2), each a binding site for the chromophore flavin mononucleotide (FMN). Their C termini contain a serine/threonine protein kinase domain. Here, we examine the kinetic properties of the LOV domains of Arabidopsis phot1 and phot2, rice (Oryza sativa) phot1 and phot2, and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii phot. When expressed in Escherichia coli, purified LOV domains from all phototropins examined bind FMN tightly and undergo a self-contained photocycle, characterized by fluorescence and absorption changes induced by blue light (T. Sakai, T. Kagawa, M. Kasahara, T.E. Swartz, J.M. Christie, W.R. Briggs, M. Wada, K. Okada [2001] Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 6969-6974; M. Salomon, J.M. Christie, E. Knieb, U. Lempert, W.R. Briggs [2000] Biochemistry 39: 9401-9410). The photocycle involves the light-induced formation of a cysteinyl adduct to the C(4a) carbon of the FMN chromophore, which subsequently breaks down in darkness. In each case, the relative quantum efficiencies for the photoreaction and the rate constants for dark recovery of LOV1, LOV2, and peptides containing both LOV domains are presented. Moreover, the data obtained from full-length Arabidopsis phot1 and phot2 expressed in insect cells closely resemble those obtained for the tandem LOV-domain fusion proteins expressed in E. coli. For both Arabidopsis and rice phototropins, the LOV domains of phot1 differ from those of phot2 in their reaction kinetic properties and relative quantum efficiencies. Thus, in addition to differing in amino acid sequence, the phototropins can be distinguished on the basis of the photochemical cycles of their LOV domains. The LOV domains of C. reinhardtii phot also undergo light-activated spectral changes consistent with cysteinyl adduct formation. Thus, the phototropin family extends over a wide evolutionary range from unicellular algae to higher plants.     

Physiological roles of the light, oxygen, or voltage domains of phototropin 1 and phototropin 2 in Arabidopsis

Phototropins (phot1 and phot2) are plant blue-light receptors that mediate phototropism, chloroplast movement, stomatal opening, rapid inhibition of growth of etiolated seedlings, and leaf expansion in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Their N-terminal region contains two light, oxygen, or voltage (LOV) domains, which bind flavin mononucleotide and form a covalent adduct between a conserved cysteine and the flavin mononucleotide chromophore upon photoexcitation. The C-terminal region contains a serine/threonine kinase domain that catalyzes blue-light-activated autophosphorylation. Here, we have transformed the phot1 phot2 (phot1-5 phot2-1) double mutant with PHOT expression constructs driven by the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. These constructs encode either wild-type phototropin or phototropin with one or both LOV-domain cysteines mutated to block their photochemistry. We selected multiple lines in each of the eight resulting categories of transformants for further physiological analyses. Specifically, we investigated whether LOV1 and LOV2 serve the same or different functions for phototropism and leaf expansion. Our results show that the LOV2 domain of phot1 plays a major role in phototropism and leaf expansion, as does the LOV2 domain of phot2. No complementation of phototropism or leaf expansion was observed for the LOV1 domain of phot1. However, phot2 LOV1 was unexpectedly found to complement phototropism to a considerable level. Similarly, transformants carrying a PHOT transgene with both LOV domains inactivated developed strong curvatures toward high fluence rate blue light. However, we found that the phot2-1 mutant is leaky and produces a small level of full-length phot2 protein. In vitro experiments indicate that cross phosphorylation can occur between functional phot2 and inactivated phot1 molecules. Such a mechanism may occur in vivo and therefore account for the functional activities observed in the PHOT transgenics with both lov domains inactivated. The implications of this mechanism with respect to phototropin function are discussed.     

Photochemical and mutational analysis of the FMN-binding domains of the plant blue light receptor, phototropin

The plant photoreceptor phototropin is an autophosphorylating serine-threonine protein kinase activated by UV-A/blue light. Two domains, LOV1 and LOV2, members of the PAS domain superfamily, mediate light sensing by phototropin. Heterologous expression studies have shown that both domains function as FMN-binding sites. Although three plant blue light photoreceptors, cry1, cry2, and phototropin, have been identified to date, the photochemical reactions underlying photoactivation of these light sensors have not been described so far. Herein, we demonstrate that the LOV domains of Avena sativa phototropin undergo a self-contained photocycle characterized by a loss of blue light absorbance in response to light and a spontaneous recovery of the blue light-absorbing form in the dark. Rate constants and quantum efficiencies for the photoreactions indicate that LOV1 exhibits a lower photosensitivity than LOV2. The spectral properties of the photoproduct produced for both LOV domains are unrelated to those found for photoreduced flavins and flavoproteins, but are consistent with those of a flavin-cysteinyl adduct. Flavin-thiol adducts are generally short-lifetime reaction intermediates formed during the flavoprotein-catalyzed reduction of protein disulfides. By site-directed mutagenesis, we have identified several amino acid residues within the putative chromophore binding site of LOV1 and LOV2 that appear to be important for FMN binding and/or the photochemical reactivity. Among those is Cys39, which plays an important role in the photochemical reaction of the LOV domains. Replacement of Cys39 with Ala abolished the photochemical reactions of both LOV domains. We therefore propose that light sensing by the phototropin LOV domains occurs via the formation of a stable adduct between the FMN chromophore and Cys39.     

A LOV story: the signaling state of the phot1 LOV2 photocycle involves chromophore-triggered protein structure relaxation, as probed by far-UV time-resolved optical rotatory dispersion spectroscopy

Light-, oxygen-, or voltage-regulated (LOV1 and LOV2) domains bind flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and activate the phototropism photoreceptors phototropin 1 (phot1) and phototropin 2 (phot2) by using energy from absorbed blue light. Upon absorption of blue light, chromophore and protein conformational changes trigger the kinase domain for subsequent autophosphorylation and presumed downstream signal transduction. To date, the light-induced photocycle of the phot1 LOV2 protein is known to involve formation of a triplet flavin mononucleotide (FMN) chromophore followed by the appearance of a FMN adduct within 4 micros [Swartz, T. E., Corchnoy, S. B., Christie, J. M., Lewis, J. W., Szundi, I., Briggs, W. R., and Bogomolni, R. A. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 36493-36500] before thermal decay back to the dark state. To probe the mechanism by which the blue light information is relayed from the chromophore to the protein, nanosecond time-resolved optical rotatory dispersion (TRORD) spectroscopy, which is a direct probe of global secondary structure, was used to study the phot1 LOV2 protein in the far-UV region. These TRORD experiments reveal a previously unobserved intermediate species (tau approximately 90 micros) that is characterized by a FMN adduct chromophore and partially unfolded secondary structure (LOV390(S2)). This intermediate appears shortly after the formation of the FMN adduct. For LOV2, formation of a long-lived species that is ready to interact with a receptor domain for downstream signaling is much faster by comparison with formation of a similar species in other light-sensing proteins.     

Mutational analysis of phototropin 1 provides insights into the mechanism underlying LOV2 signal transmission

Phototropins (phot1 and phot2) are blue light-activated serine/threonine protein kinases that elicit a variety of photoresponses in plants. Light sensing by the phototropins is mediated by two flavin mononucleotide (FMN)-binding domains, designated LOV1 and LOV2, located in the N-terminal region of the protein. Exposure to light results in the formation of a covalent adduct between the FMN chromophore and a conserved cysteine residue within the LOV domain. LOV2 photoexcitation is essential for phot1 function in Arabidopsis and is necessary to activate phot1 kinase activity through light-induced structural changes within a conserved alpha-helix situated C-terminal to LOV2. Here we have used site-directed mutagenesis to identify further amino acid residues that are important for phot1 activation by light. Mutagenesis of bacterially expressed LOV2 and full-length phot1 expressed in insect cells indicates that perturbation of the conserved salt bridge on the surface of LOV2 does not play a role in receptor activation. However, mutation of a conserved glutamine residue (Gln(575)) within LOV2, reported previously to be required to propagate structural changes at the LOV2 surface, attenuates light-induced autophosphorylation of phot1 expressed in insect cells without compromising FMN binding. These findings, in combination with double mutant analyses, indicate that Gln(575) plays an important role in coupling light-driven cysteinyl adduct formation from within LOV2 to structural changes at the LOV2 surface that lead to activation of the C-terminal kinase domain.     

The phototropin family as photoreceptors for blue light-induced chloroplast relocation

Blue light-induced chloroplast accumulation and avoidance relocation movements are controlled by the blue light photoreceptor phototropin. The Arabidopsis thaliana genome has two phototropin genes encoding phot1 and phot2. Each of these photoreceptors contains two LOV (light oxygen and voltage) domains and a kinase domain. The LOV domains absorb blue light though an associated flavin mononucleotide chromophore, while the kinase domain is thought to be associated with signal transduction. The phototropins control not only chloroplast relocation movement, but also blue light-induced phototropic responses, leaf expansion and stomatal opening. Here I review the role of phototropin as a photoreceptor for chloroplast photorelocation movement. Electronic Publication     

The photocycle of a flavin-binding domain of the blue light photoreceptor phototropin.

The plant blue light receptor, phot1, a member of the phototropin family, is a plasma membrane-associated flavoprotein that contains two ( approximately 110 amino acids) flavin-binding domains, LOV1 and LOV2, within its N terminus and a typical serine-threonine protein kinase domain at its C terminus. The LOV (light, oxygen, and voltage) domains belong to the PAS domain superfamily of sensor proteins. In response to blue light, phototropins undergo autophosphorylation. E. coli-expressed LOV domains bind riboflavin-5'-monophosphate, are photochemically active, and have major absorption peaks at 360 and 450 nm, with the 450 nm peak having vibronic structure at 425 and 475 nm. These spectral features correspond to the action spectrum for phototropism in higher plants. Blue light excitation of the LOV2 domain generates, in less than 30 ns, a transient approximately 660 nm-absorbing species that spectroscopically resembles a flavin triplet state. This putative triplet state subsequently decays with a 4-micros time constant into a 390 nm-absorbing metastable form. The LOV2 domain (450 nm) recovers spontaneously with half-times of approximately 50 s. It has been shown that the metastable species is likely a flavin-cysteine (Cys(39) thiol) adduct at the flavin C(4a) position. A LOV2C39A mutant generates the early photoproduct but not the adduct. Titrations of LOV2 using chromophore fluorescence as an indicator suggest that Cys(39) exists as a thiolate.     

Light Signal Transduction Pathway from Flavin Chromophore to the Jα Helix of Arabidopsis Phototropin1

In the plant blue-light sensor phototropin, illumination of the chromophoric LOV domains causes activation of the serine/threonine kinase domain. Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) is a chromophore molecule in the two LOV domains (LOV1 and LOV2), but only LOV2 is responsible for kinase activation. Previous studies reported an important role of an additional helix connected to the C-terminal of LOV2 (Jα helix) for the function of phototropin; however, it remains unclear how the Jα helix affects light-induced structural changes in LOV2. In this study we compared light-induced protein structural changes of the LOV2 domain of Arabidopsis phot1 in the absence (LOV2-core) and presence (LOV2-Jα) of the Jα helix by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Prominent peaks were observed only in the amide-I region (1650 (−)/1625 (+) cm⁻¹) of LOV2-Jα at physiological temperatures (≥260 K), corresponding to structural perturbation of the α-helix. The peaks were diminished by point mutation of functionally important amino acids such as Phe-556 between FMN and the β-sheet, Gln-575 being hydrogen-bonded with FMN, and Ile-608 on the Jα helix. We thus conclude that a light signal is relayed from FMN through these amino acids and eventually changes the interaction between LOV2-core and the Jα helix in Arabidopsis phot1.     

Comparative investigation of the LOV1 and LOV2 domains in Adiantum phytochrome3

Phototropin (phot) is a blue-light photoreceptor for phototropic responses, relocation of chloroplasts, and stomata opening in plants. Phototropin has two chromophore-binding domains named LOV1 and LOV2 in its N-terminal half, each of which binds a flavin mononucleotide (FMN) noncovalently. The C-terminal half is a Ser/Thr kinase. A transgenic study of Arabidopsis suggested that only LOV2 domain is necessary for the kinase activity, whereas X-ray crystallographic structures of LOV1 and LOV2 domains are almost identical. These facts imply that the detailed structures and/or structural changes are different between LOV1 and LOV2 domains. In this study, we compared light-induced structural changes of the LOV1 and LOV2 domains of a phototropin, Adiantum phytochrome3 (phy3), by means of UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Photochemical properties of an adduct formation between FMN and a cysteine are essentially similar between phy3-LOV1 and phy3-LOV2. On the other hand, the S-H group of the reactive cysteine forms a hydrogen bond in phy3-LOV1, which is strengthened at low temperatures. This is possibly correlated with the fact that no adduct formation takes place for phy3-LOV1 at 77 K as revealed by the UV-visible absorption spectra. The most prominent difference was seen in the amide-I vibration that monitors the secondary structure of peptide backbone. Protein structural changes in phy3-LOV2 involve the regions of loops, alpha-helices, and beta-sheets, which differ significantly among various temperatures. Extended protein structural changes are probably correlated with the signal transduction activity of LOV2. In contrast, protein structural changes were very small in phy3-LOV1, and they were almost temperature independent. The photocycle of phy3-LOV1 takes 3.1 h, being more than 100 times longer than that of phy3-LOV2. These facts suggest that Adiantum phy3-LOV1 does not work for light sensing, being consistent with the previous transgenic study of Arabidopsis. It is likely that plants utilize a unique protein architecture (LOV domain) for different functions by regulating their protein structural changes.     

Phototropin receptor kinase activation by blue light

Phototropins (phot1 and phot2) are blue light-activated serine/threonine protein kinases that function to mediate a variety of adaptive processes that serve to optimize the photosynthetic efficiency of plants and thereby promote their growth. Light sensing by the phototropins is mediated by a repeated motif located within the N-terminal region of the protein designated the LOV domain. Although phototropins possess two LOV photosensors (LOV1 and LOV2), recent biophysical and structure-function analyses clearly indicate that the LOV2 domain plays a predominant role in regulating phototropin kinase activity owing to specific protein changes that occur in response to LOV2 photoexcitation. In particular, the central β-sheet scaffold plays a role in propagating the photochemical signal generated from within LOV2 to protein changes at the surface that are necessary for kinase activation.Key words: phototropin, LOV domain, FMN, cysteinyl adduct, amphipathic helix, receptor autophosphoryation     

LOV2-linker-kinase phosphorylates LOV1-containing N-terminal polypeptide substrate via photoreaction of LOV2 in Arabidopsis phototropin1

Phototropin is a blue light receptor in plants and is thought to be a light-regulated protein kinase. Previously, we defined the role of the photoreceptive domains, LOV1 and 2, in the light activation of the kinase in Arabidopsis phototropin2 (phot2). In this study, photoregulation of the kinase in phototropin1 (phot1) was studied using LOV2-linker-kinase polypeptide. We designed a new substrate consisting of the N-terminal part of the phot1 with autophosphorylation sites. The LOV2-linker-kinase had the same spectroscopic properties as those of the LOV2 core and phosphorylated the substrate in a light-dependent manner. Amino acid substitution experiments proved that the phosphorylation comes from the activation of the kinase via photoreaction of LOV2.     

Phototropins mediate blue and red light-induced chloroplast movements in Physcomitrella patens

Phototropin is the blue-light receptor that mediates phototropism, chloroplast movement, and stomatal opening in Arabidopsis. Blue and red light induce chloroplast movement in the moss Physcomitrella patens. To study the photoreceptors for chloroplast movement in P. patens, four phototropin genes (PHOTA1, PHOTA2, PHOTB1, and PHOTB2) were isolated by screening cDNA libraries. These genes were classified into two groups (PHOTA and PHOTB) on the basis of their deduced amino acid sequences. Then phototropin disruptants were generated by homologous recombination and used for analysis of chloroplast movement. Data revealed that blue light-induced chloroplast movement was mediated by phototropins in P. patens. Both photA and photB groups were able to mediate chloroplast avoidance, as has been reported for Arabidopsis phot2, although the photA group contributed more to the response. Red light-induced chloroplast movement was also significantly reduced in photA2photB1photB2 triple disruptants. Because the primary photoreceptor for red light-induced chloroplast movement in P. patens is phytochrome, phototropins may be downstream components of phytochromes in the signaling pathway. To our knowledge, this work is the first to show a function for the phototropin blue-light receptor in a response to wavelengths that it does not absorb.     

Subcellular localization and turnover of Arabidopsis phototropin 1

We reported recently that internalization of the plant blue light receptor phototropin 1 (phot1) from the plasma membrane in response to irradiation is reliant on receptor autophosphorylation. Pharmacological interference and co-immunoprecipitation analyses also indicated that light-induced internalization of phot1 involves clathrin-dependent processes. Here, we describe additional pharmacological studies that impact the subcellular localization and trafficking of Arabidopsis phot1. Alterations in the microtububle cytoskeleton led to dramatic differences in phot1 localization and function. Likewise, inhibition of phosphatidic acid (PA) signaling was found to impair phot1 localization and function. However, action of PA inhibition on phot1 function may be attributed to pleiotropic effects on cell growth. While phot1 kinase activation is necessary to stimulate its internalization, autophosphorylation is not required for phot1 turnover in response to prolonged blue light irradiation. The implications of these findings in regard to phot1 localization and function are discussed.Key words: phototropin 1 (phot1), phototropism, subcellular trafficking, autophosphorylation, protein turnover     

Primary reactions of the LOV2 domain of phototropin,a plant blue-light photoreceptor

The phototropins constitute an important class of plant photoreceptor kinases that control a range of physiological responses, including phototropism, light-directed chloroplast movement, and light-induced stomatal opening. The LOV2 domain of phototropin binds a molecule of flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and undergoes a photocycle involving light-driven covalent adduct formation between a conserved cysteine residue and the C(4a) atom of FMN. This product state promotes C-terminal kinase activation and downstream signal transduction. Here, we report the primary photophysics and photochemistry of LOV2 domains of phototropin 1 of Avena sativa (oat) and of the phy3 photoreceptor of Adiantum capillus-veneris (maidenhair fern). In agreement with earlier reports [Swartz, T. E., et al. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 36493-36500], we find that the FMN triplet state is the reactive species from which the photoreaction occurs. We demonstrate that the triplet state is the primary photoproduct in the LOV2 photocycle, generated at 60% efficiency. No spectroscopically distinguishable intermediates precede the FMN triplet on the femtosecond to nanosecond time scale, indicating that it is formed directly via intersystem crossing (ISC) from the singlet state. Our results indicate that the majority of the FMN triplets in the LOV2 domain exist in the protonated form. We propose a reaction mechanism that involves excited-state proton transfer, on the nanosecond time scale or faster, from the sulfhydryl group of the conserved cysteine to the N5 atom of FMN. This event promotes adduct formation by increasing the electrophilicity of C(4a) and subsequent nucleophilic attack by the cysteine's thiolate anion. Comparison to free FMN in solution shows that the protein environment of LOV2 increases the ISC rate of FMN by a factor of 2.4, thus improving the yield of the cysteinyl-flavin adduct and the efficiency of phototropin-mediated signaling processes.     

Vibration spectroscopy reveals light-induced chromophore and protein structural changes in the LOV2 domain of the plant blue-light receptor phototropin 1

Phototropins (phot1 and phot2), the plant blue-light receptors for phototropism, chloroplast movement, and stomatal opening, are flavoproteins that contain two approximately 12 kDa FMN-binding domains, LOV1 and LOV2, at their N-terminus, and a serine/threonine protein kinase domain at their C-terminus. The light-activated LOV2 domain forms a metastable intermediate which has been shown to be a protein-chromophore cysteinyl adduct (Cys39) at C(4a) of FMN. This species thermally relaxes back to the ground state in the dark. We measured the light-minus-dark FTIR difference spectra for the LOV2 domain of oat phot1. These spectra show the disappearance of bands at 1580, 1550, and 1350 cm(-1) that originate from, or are strongly coupled to, the N5=C(4a) stretching vibrations, consistent with the perturbations expected upon C(4a) adduct formation. Assignment of these negative difference FTIR bands to native chromophore vibrations is based on the alignment with resonance Raman bands of FMN. Prominent positive bands include a doublet at 1516 and 1536 cm(-1) and one at 1375 and 1298 cm(-1). Normal-mode vibrational-frequency calculations for both lumiflavin and lumiflavin with a sulfur attached at the C(4a) position agree with many of the positive and negative bands observed in the difference spectra. Both calculated and experimental difference FTIR spectra for deuterium isotope substitutions at exchangeable positions in the flavin chromophore are consistent with the assignment of the above positive bands to vibrational modes involving both the newly formed tetrahedral geometry of C(4a) and the N5-H bond in the long-lived LOV2(S)(390) cysteinyl species.     

Phytochrome regulation of pea phototropin

Type 1 phototropin, one of the blue light receptors responsible for phototropism, is encoded in peas by at least two genes, PsPHOT1A and PsPHOT1B (formerly PsPK4 and PsPK5), both of which are more similar to Arabidopsis PHOT1 than to Arabidopsis PHOT2. We show here that PsPHOT1B encodes a full-length phototropin, whose expression pattern suggests that Psphot1b is the predominant phot1-type phototropin in etiolated seedlings. The gene encoding the other type 1 phototropin, PsPHOT1A, is expressed at low levels, with its highest levels in the leaves and stems of more mature, light-grown plants. Studies with phyA, phyB and the phyAphyB double mutants show that phyA and phyB have partially redundant roles in the reduction of PsPHOT1B expression under red light.     

Phototropins 1 and 2: versatile plant blue-light receptors

Blue and ultraviolet-A light regulate a wide range of responses in plants, including phototropism, chloroplast migration and stomatal opening. However, the photoreceptors for these light responses have been identified only recently. The phototropins (phot1 and phot2) represent a new class of receptor kinases that appear to be exclusive to plants. Recent genetic analysis has shown that phot1 and phot2 exhibit partially overlapping functions in mediating phototropism, chloroplast migration, and stomatal opening in Arabidopsis. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the early photochemical and biochemical events that follow phototropin excitation, the details of how this excitation activates such different responses remain to be elucidated.     

Phototropins and Their LOV Domains：Versatile Plant Blue-Light Receptors

The phototropins phot1 and phot2 are plant blue-light receptors that mediate phototropism, chloroplast movements, stomatal opening, leaf expansion, the rapid Inhibition of hypocotyl growth in etiolated seedlings, and possibly solar tracking by leaves in those species in which It occurs. The phototroplns are plasma membrane-associated hydrophilic proteins with two chromophore domains （designated LOV1 and LOV2 for their resemblance to domains In other signaling proteins that detect light, oxygen, or voltage） in their Nterminal half and a classic serine/threonlne kinase domain in their C-terminal half. Both chromophore domains bind flavin mononucleotide （FMN） and both undergo light-activated formation of a covalent bond between a nearby cystelne and the C（4a） carbon of the FMN to form the signaling state. LOV2-cystelnyl adduct formation leads to the release downstream of a tightly bound amphlpathlc α-helix, a step required for activation of the klnase function. This cysteinyl adduct then slowly decays over a matter of seconds or minutes to return the photoreceptor chromophore modules to their ground state. Functional LOV2 is required for light-activated phosphorylation and for various blue-light responses mediated by the phototroplns. The function of LOV1 is still unknown, although It may serve to modulate the signal generated by LOV2. The LOV domain Is an ancient chromophore module found In a wide range of otherwise unrelated proteins In fungi and prokaryotes, the latter Including cyanobacterla, eubacterla, and archaea. Further general reviews on the phototropins are those by Celaya and Liscum （2005） and Christie and Briggs （2005）.     

The Arabidopsis rcn1-1 Mutation Impairs Dephosphorylation of Phot2, Resulting in Enhanced Blue Light Responses

Phototropins (phot) sense blue light through the two N-terminal chromophore binding LOV domains and activate the C-terminal kinase domain. The resulting phototropin autophosphorylation is essential for biological activity. We identified the A1 subunit of Ser/Thr protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) as interacting with full-length phot2 in yeast and also interacting with phot2 in an in vitro protein binding assay. Phenotypic characterizations of a phot1-5 rcn1-1 (for root curling in n-naphthylphthalamic acid1) double mutant, in which phot2 is the only functional phototropin and PP2A activity is reduced, showed enhanced phototropic sensitivity and enhanced blue light–induced stomatal opening, suggesting that PP2A activity is involved in regulating phot2 function. When treated with cantharidin, a chemical inhibitor of PP2A, the phot1-5 mutant exhibited enhanced phot2-mediated phototropic responses like those of the phot1-5 rcn1-1 double mutant. Immunoblot analysis to examine phot2 endogenous phosphorylation levels and in vitro phosphorylation assays of phot2 extracted from plants during dark recovery from blue light exposure confirmed that phot2 is more slowly dephosphorylated in the reduced PP2A activity background than in the wild-type PP2A background, suggesting that phosphorylated phot2 is a substrate of PP2A activity. While reduced PP2A activity enhanced the activity of phot2, it did not enhance either phot1 dephosphorylation or the activity of phot1 in mediating phototropism or stomatal opening.     

A base-catalyzed mechanism for dark state recovery in the Avena sativa phototropin-1 LOV2 domain

Phototropins are autophosphorylating serine/threonine kinases responsible for blue-light perception in plants; their action gives rise to phototropism, chloroplast relocation, and opening of stomatal guard cells. The kinase domain constitutes the C-terminal part of Avena sativa phototropin 1. The N-terminal part contains two light, oxygen, or voltage (LOV) sensing domains, LOV1 and LOV2; each binds a flavin mononucleotide (FMN) chromophore (lambdamax = 447 nm, termed D447) and forms the light-sensitive domains, of which LOV2 is the principal component. Blue-light absorption produces a covalent adduct between a very conserved nearby cysteine residue and the C(4a) atom of the FMN moiety via the triplet state of the flavin. The covalent adduct thermally decays to regenerate the D447 dark state, with a rate that may vary by several orders of magnitude between different species. We report that the imidazole base can act as a very efficient enhancer of the dark recovery of A. sativa phot1 LOV2 (AsLOV2) and some other well-characterized LOV domains. Imidazole accelerates the thermal decay of AsLOV2 by 3 orders of magnitude in the submolar concentration range, via a base-catalyzed mechanism involving base abstraction of the FMN N(5)-H adduct state and subsequent reprotonation of the reactive cysteine. The LOV2 crystal structure suggests that the imidazole molecules may act from a cavity located in the vicinity of the FMN, explaining its high efficiency, populated through a channel connecting the cavity to the protein surface. Use of pH titration and chemical inactivation by diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC) suggests that histidines located at the surface of the LOV domain act as base catalysts via an as yet unidentified H-bond network, operating at a rate of (55 s)-1 at pH 8. In addition, molecular processes other than histidine-mediated base catalysis contibute significantly to the total thermal decay rate of the adduct and operate at a rate constant of (65 s)-1, leading to a net adduct decay time constant of 30 s at pH 8.