Identification of the mitochondrial receptor complex in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mitochondrial protein import involves the recognition of preproteins by receptors and their subsequent translocation across the outer membrane. In Neurospora crassa, the two import receptors, MOM19 and MOM72, were found in a complex with the general insertion protein, GIP (formed by MOM7, MOM8, MOM30 and MOM38) and MOM22. We isolated a complex out of S. cerevisiae mitochondria consisting of MOM38/ISP42, the receptor MOM72, and five new yeast proteins, the putative equivalents of N. crassa MOM7, MOM8, MOM19, MOM22 and MOM30. A receptor complex isolated out of yeast cells transformed with N. crassa MOM19 contained the N. crassa master receptor in addition to the yeast proteins. This demonstrates that the yeast complex is functional, and provides strong evidence that we also have identified the yeast MOM19.     

Functional cooperation of mitochondrial protein import receptors in yeast.

We have identified a 20 kDa yeast mitochondrial outer membrane protein (termed MAS20) which appears to function as a protein import receptor. We cloned, sequenced and physically mapped the MAS20 gene and found that the protein is homologous to the MOM19 import receptor from Neurospora crassa. MAS20 and MOM19 contain the sequence motif F-X-K-A-L-X-V/L, which is repeated several times with minor variations in the MAS70/MOM72 receptors. To determine how MAS20 functions together with the previously identified yeast receptor MAS70, we constructed yeast mutants lacking either one or both of the receptors. Deletion of either receptor alone had little or no effect on fermentative growth and only partially inhibited mitochondrial protein import in vivo. Deletion of both receptors was lethal. Deleting only MAS70 did not affect respiration; deleting only MAS20 caused loss of respiration, but respiration could be restored by overexpressing MAS70. Import of the F1-ATPase beta-subunit into isolated mitochondria was only partly inhibited by IgGs against either MAS20 or MAS70, but both IgGs inhibited import completely. We conclude that the two receptors have overlapping specificities for mitochondrial precursor proteins and that neither receptor is by itself essential.     

The mitochondrial receptor complex: Mom22 is essential for cell viability and directly interacts with preproteins.

A multisubunit complex in the mitochondrial outer membrane is responsible for targeting and membrane translocation of nuclear-encoded preproteins. This receptor complex contains two import receptors, a general insertion pore and the protein Mom22. It was unknown if Mom22 directly interacts with preproteins, and two views existed about the possible functions of Mom22: a central role in transfer of preproteins from both receptors to the general insertion pore or a more limited function dependent on the presence of the receptor Mom19. For this report, we identified and cloned Saccharomyces cerevisiae MOM22 and investigated whether it plays a direct role in targeting of preproteins. A preprotein accumulated at the mitochondrial outer membrane was cross-linked to Mom22. The cross-linking depended on the import stage of the preprotein. Overexpression of Mom22 suppressed the respiratory defect of yeast cells lacking Mom19 and increased preprotein import into mom19 delta mitochondria, demonstrating that Mom22 can function independently of Mom19. Overexpression of Mom22 even suppressed the lethal phenotype of a double deletion of the two import receptors known so far (mom19 delta mom72 delta). Deletion of the MOM22 gene was lethal for yeast cells, identifying Mom22 as one of the few mitochondrial membrane proteins essential for fermentative growth. These results suggest that Mom22 plays an essential role in the mitochondrial receptor complex. It directly interacts with preproteins in transit and can perform receptor-like activities.     

A crucial role of the mitochondrial protein import receptor MOM19 for the biogenesis of mitochondria

The novel genetic method of "sheltered RIP" (repeat induced point mutation) was used to generate a Neurospora crassa mutant in which MOM19, a component of the protein import machinery of the mitochondrial outer membrane, can be depleted. Deficiency in MOM19 resulted in a severe growth defect, but the cells remained viable. The number of mitochondrial profiles was not grossly changed, but mutant mitochondria were highly deficient in cristae membranes, cytochromes, and protein synthesis activity. Protein import into isolated mutant mitochondria was decreased by factors of 6 to 30 for most proteins from all suborganellar compartments. Proteins like the ADP/ATP carrier, MOM19, and cytochrome c, whose import into wild-type mitochondria occurs independently of MOM19 became imported normally showing that the reduced import activities are solely caused by a lack of MOM19. Depletion of MOM19 reveals a close functional relationship between MOM19 and MOM22, since loss of MOM19 led to decreased levels of MOM22 and reduced protein import through MOM22. Furthermore, MOM72 does not function as a general backup receptor for MOM19 suggesting that these two proteins have distinct precursor specificities. These findings demonstrate that the import receptor MOM19 fulfills an important role in the biogenesis of mitochondria and that it is essential for the formation of mitochondria competent in respiration and phosphorylation.     

''Sheltered disruption'' of Neurospora crassa MOM22, an essential component of the mitochondrial protein import complex.

MOM22 is a component of the protein import complex of the mitochondrial outer membrane of Neurospora crassa. Using the newly developed procedure of 'sheltered disruption', we created a heterokaryotic strain harboring two nuclei, one with a null allele of the mom-22 gene and the other with a wild-type allele. Homokaryons bearing the mom-22 disruption could not be isolated, suggesting that mom-22 is an essential gene. The mutant nucleus can be forced to predominate in the heterokaryon through the use of specific nutritional and inhibitor resistance markers. Cultivation of the heterokaryon under conditions favoring the mutant nucleus resulted in selective depletion of MOM22. MOM22-depleted cells did not grow and contained mitochondria with an altered morphology and protein composition. Protein import into isolated, MOM22-depleted mitochondria was abolished for most precursor proteins destined for all subcompartments. In contrast, precursors of MOM19, MOM22 and MOM72 became inserted normally into the outer membrane, defining a novel MOM22-independent import pathway which remained intact in mutant mitochondria. Furthermore, the specific binding of the ADP/ATP carrier to the outer membrane was unaffected, but subsequent transport across the outer membrane did not occur. Our data show that MOM22 is an essential component of Neurospora cells specifically required for the biogenesis of mitochondria.     

Import of ADP/ATP carrier into mitochondria: two receptors act in parallel

We have identified the yeast homologue of Neurospora crassa MOM72, the mitochondrial import receptor for the ADP/ATP carrier (AAC), by functional studies and by cDNA sequencing. Mitochondria of a yeast mutant in which the gene for MOM72 was disrupted were impaired in specific binding and import of AAC. Unexpectedly, we found a residual, yet significant import of AAC into mitochondria lacking MOM72 that occurred via the receptor MOM19. We conclude that both MOM72 and MOM19 can direct AAC into mitochondria, albeit with different efficiency. Moreover, the precursor of MOM72 apparently does not require a positively charged sequence at the extreme amino terminus for targeting to mitochondria.     

MOM22 is a receptor for mitochondrial targeting sequences and cooperates with MOM19.

Recognition of targeting signals is a crucial step in protein sorting within the cell. So far, only a few components capable of deciphering targeting signals have been identified, and insights into the chemical nature of the interaction between the signals and their receptors are scarce. Using highly purified mitochondrial outer membrane vesicles, we demonstrate that MOM22 and MOM19, components of the protein import complex of the outer membrane, bind preproteins at the mitochondrial surface in a reversible fashion. Interaction specifically and directly occurs with the N-terminal presequence and is abolished after inactivation of either MOM22 or MOM19. Binding is salt sensitive, suggesting that recognition involves electrostatic forces between the positive charges of the presequence and the acidic cytosolic domain of MOM22. MOM19 and MOM22 can be cross-linked with high efficiency. We propose that the two proteins form a complex which functions as the presequence receptor at the mitochondrial surface and facilitates the movement of preproteins into the translocation pore.     

Mitochondrial import receptors for precursor proteins.

The specific targeting of precursor proteins synthesized in the cytosol to various cell organelles is a central aspect of intracellular protein traffic. Several hundred different proteins are imported from the cytosol into the mitochondria. Recent studies have identified the mitochondrial outer membrane proteins MOM19, MOM72, MOM38 (approximately ISP42) and p32 which have a role in initial steps of protein import. The first three components are present in a multi-subunit complex that catalyses recognition and membrane insertion of precursor proteins.     

MOM19, an import receptor for mitochondrial precursor proteins

We have identified a 19 kd protein of the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM19). Monospecific IgG and Fab fragments directed against MOM19 inhibit import of precursor proteins destined for the various mitochondrial subcompartments, including porin, cytochrome c1, Fe/S protein, F0 ATPase subunit 9, and F1 ATPase subunit beta. Inhibition occurs at the level of high affinity binding of precursors to mitochondria. Consistent with previous functional studies that suggested the existence of distinct import sites for ADP/ATP carrier and cytochrome c, we find that import of those precursors is not inhibited. We conclude that MOM19 is identical to, or closely associated with, a specific mitochondrial import receptor.     

A novel insertion pathway of mitochondrial outer membrane proteins with multiple transmembrane segments

The central channel Tom40 of the preprotein translocase of outer membrane (TOM) complex is thought to be responsible for the import of virtually all preproteins synthesized outside the mitochondria. In this study, we analyze the topogenesis of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), which integrates into the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) through five hydrophobic transmembrane segments (TMSs) and functions in cholesterol import into the inner membrane. Analyses of in vitro and in vivo import into TOM component–depleted mitochondria reveal that PBR import (1) depends on the import receptor Tom70 but requires neither the Tom20 and Tom22 import receptors nor the import channel Tom40, (2) shares the post-Tom70 pathway with the C-tail–anchored proteins, and (3) requires factors of the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Furthermore, membrane integration of mitofusins and mitochondrial ubiquitin ligase, the MOM proteins with two and four TMSs, respectively, proceeds through the same initial pathway. These findings reveal a previously unidentified pathway of the membrane integration of MOM proteins with multiple TMSs.     

Targeting of a chemically pure preprotein to mitochondria does not require the addition of a cytosolic signal recognition factor.

To analyze the role of cytosolic cofactors in mitochondrial protein targeting, we prepared a chemically pure mitochondrial preprotein. When diluted out of 7 M urea, this precursor protein was efficiently imported into mitochondria without the addition of cytosolic cofactors. Extensive prewashing of mitochondria (up to 2 M KCl) did not reduce its import. Import of the purified precursor showed the characteristics of authentic mitochondrial import including use of the receptor MOM19, requirement for a membrane potential, and proteolytic processing. When the precursor was preincubated at a low concentration of urea, cytosolic cofactors were needed to preserve its import competence. We conclude that targeting of this preprotein via the mitochondrial master receptor MOM19 does not require a cytosolic signal recognition factor; cytosolic cofactors apparently have chaperone-like functions in mitochondrial protein uptake. Moreover, we found that a cleavable presequence was sufficient to direct protein import via MOM19. Together with the cofactor-independent function of MOM19, it is thus conceivable that MOM19 functions as mitochondrial presequence receptor.     

Protein translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane: role of import receptors in the structural organization of the TOM complex

The mitochondrial outer membrane contains a multi-subunit machinery responsible for the specific recognition and translocation of precursor proteins. This translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) consists of three receptor proteins, Tom20, Tom22 and Tom70, the channel protein Tom40, and several small Tom proteins. Single-particle electron microscopy analysis of the Neurospora TOM complex has led to different views with two or three stain-filled centers resembling channels. Based on biochemical and electron microscopy studies of the TOM complex isolated from yeast mitochondria, we have discovered the molecular reason for the different number of channel-like structures. The TOM complex from wild-type yeast contains up to three stain-filled centers, while from a mutant yeast selectively lacking Tom20, the TOM complex particles contain only two channel-like structures. From mutant mitochondria lacking Tom22, native electrophoresis separates an approximately 80 kDa subcomplex that consists of Tom40 only and is functional for accumulation of a precursor protein. We conclude that while Tom40 forms the import channels, the two receptors Tom22 and Tom20 are required for the organization of Tom40 dimers into larger TOM structures.     

Mitochondrial protein import

Most polypeptides of mitochondria are imported from the cytosol. Precursor proteins contain targeting and sorting information, often in the form of amino-terminal presequences. Precursors first bind to receptors in the outer membrane. Two putative import receptors have been identified: a 19-kilodalton protein (MOM19) inNeurospora mitochondria, and a 70-kilodalton protein (MAS70) in yeast. Some precursors integrate directly into the outer membrane, but the majority are translocated through one or both membranes. This process requires an electrochemical potential across the inner membrane. Import appears to occur through a hydrophilic pore, although the inner and outer membranes may contain functionally separate translocation machineries. In yeast, a 42-kilodalton protein (ISP42) probably forms part of the outer membrane channel. After import, precursors interact with chaperonin ATPases in the matrix. Presequences then are removed by the matrix protease. Finally, some proteins are retranslocated across the inner membrane to the intermembrane space.     

Multispan mitochondrial outer membrane protein Ugo1 follows a unique Mim1-dependent import pathway

The mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) harbors several multispan proteins that execute various functions. Despite their importance, the mechanisms by which these proteins are recognized and inserted into the outer membrane remain largely unclear. In this paper, we address this issue using yeast mitochondria and the multispan protein Ugo1. Using a specific insertion assay and analysis by native gel electrophoresis, we show that the import receptor Tom70, but not its partner Tom20, is involved in the initial recognition of the Ugo1 precursor. Surprisingly, the import pore formed by the translocase of the outer membrane complex appears not to be required for the insertion process. Conversely, the multifunctional outer membrane protein mitochondrial import 1 (Mim1) plays a central role in mediating the insertion of Ugo1. Collectively, these results suggest that Ugo1 is inserted into the MOM by a novel pathway in which Tom70 and Mim1 contribute to the efficiency and selectivity of the process.     

Import of cytochrome c heme lyase into mitochondria: a novel pathway into the intermembrane space.

Cytochrome c heme lyase (CCHL) catalyses the covalent attachment of the heme group to apocytochrome c during its import into mitochondria. The enzyme is membrane-associated and is located within the intermembrane space. The precursor of CCHL synthesized in vitro was efficiently translocated into isolated mitochondria from Neurospora crassa. The imported CCHL, like the native protein, was correctly localized to the intermembrane space, where it was membrane-bound. As with the majority of mitochondrial precursor proteins, CCHL uses the MOM19-GIP receptor complex in the outer membrane for import. In contrast to proteins taking the general import route, CCHL was imported independently of both ATP-hydrolysis and an electrochemical potential as external energy sources. CCHL which lacks a cleavable signal sequence apparently does not traverse the inner membrane to reach the intermembrane space; rather, it translocates through the outer membrane only. Thus, CCHL represents an example of a novel, 'non-conservative' import pathway into the intermembrane space, thereby also showing that the import apparatus in the outer membrane acts separately from the import machinery in the inner membrane.     

Nicotiana benthamiana LRR‐RLP NbEIX2 mediates the perception of an EIX‐like protein from Verticillium dahliae

Verticillium wilt diseases caused by the soil‐borne fungus Verticillium dahliae result in devastating yield losses in many economically important crops annually. Here, we identified a novel ethylene‐inducing xylanase (EIX)‐like protein, VdEIX3, from V. dahliae, which exhibits immunity‐inducing activity in Nicotiana benthamiana. In vitro‐purified VdEIX3 can induce strong oxidative burst, activate the expression of defense‐related genes, and increase resistance against oomycete and fungal pathogens in N. benthamiana. VdEIX3 orthologs of other Verticillium pathogens also induce cell death in N. benthamiana, which form a new type of EIX protein family that is distinct from the known EIX proteins. A leucine‐rich repeat receptor‐like protein, NbEIX2, regulates the perception of VdEIX3 in N. benthamiana. Our results demonstrate that VdEIX3 is a novel EIX‐like protein that can be recognized by N. benthamiana NbEIX2, and also suggest that NbEIX2 is a promising receptor‐like protein that is potentially applicable to transgenic breeding for improving resistance to Verticillium wilt diseases.     

Structural insights into proapoptotic signaling mediated by MTCH2, VDAC2, TOM40 and TOM22

Mitochondrial Outer Membrane (MOM) Permeabilization (MOMP) is a critical step in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis and is regulated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. In vitro studies using cardiolipin-containing liposomes as a MOM model have suggested that a mitochondria-specific phospholipid, cardiolipin, is of crucial importance in MOMP. However, recently it has been found that the MOM contains much less cardiolipin than it is required for liposome permeabilization. Shortly thereafter, several MOM proteins, such as VDAC2, MTCH2, TOM22 and TOM40, have been identified as the Bax, Bak and tBid receptors that are indispensable in MOMP, but the underlying mechanisms are elusive. Here, proapoptotic signaling mediated by these MOM receptors was explored in terms of 3D-structures of interacting proteins using computational modeling. The formation under apoptotic conditions of the TOM40/TOM22/tBid protein complex possessing a fairly high binding affinity towards Bax is predicted, suggesting the recruitment of Bax to mitochondria by this complex in apoptotic cells. Our simulations predict the displacement of Bax from the TOM40/TOM22/tBid/Bax complex by another Bax in auto-catalytic manner and explain, in terms of structure, the tBid-mediated displacement of Bak from the VDAC2/Bak complex. Computational modeling revealed high-affinity binding of Bid to MTCH2 suggesting both a quasi-constitutive residence of Bid in MTCH2-bound state in healthy cells and its caspase-8-mediated cleavage there under apoptotic conditions. Overall, our results provide structural details for important stages of apoptotic signaling mediated by MOM receptors and enrich its mechanistic understanding.     

The essential function of the small Tim proteins in the TIM22 import pathway does not depend on formation of the soluble 70-kilodalton complex

The TIM22 protein import pathway of the yeast mitochondrion contains several components, including a family of five proteins (Tim8p, -9p, -10p, -12p, and -13p [Tim, for translocase of inner membrane]) that are located in the intermembrane space and are 25% identical. Tim9p and Tim10p have dual roles in mediating the import of inner membrane proteins. Like the Tim8p-Tim13p complex, the Tim9p-Tim10p complex functions as a putative chaperone to guide hydrophobic precursors across the intermembrane space. Like membrane-associated Tim12p, they are members of the Tim18p-Tim22p-Tim54p membrane complex that mediates precursor insertion into the membrane. To understand the role of this family in protein import, we have used a genetic approach to manipulate the complement of the small Tim proteins. A strain has been constructed that lacks the 70-kDa soluble Tim8p-Tim13p and Tim9p-Tim10p complexes in the intermembrane space. Instead, a functional version of Tim9p (Tim9(S67C)p), identified as a second-site suppressor of a conditional tim10 mutant, maintains viability. Characterization of this strain revealed that Tim9(S67C)p and Tim10p were tightly associated with the inner membrane, the soluble 70-kDa Tim8p-Tim13p and Tim9p-Tim10p complexes were not detectable, and the rate of protein import into isolated mitochondria proceeded at a slower rate. An arrested translocation intermediate bound to Tim9(S67C)p was located in the intermembrane space, associated with the inner membrane. We suggest that the 70-kDa complexes facilitate import, similar to the outer membrane receptors of the TOM (hetero-oligomeric translocase of the outer membrane) complex, and the essential role of Tim9p and Tim10p may be to mediate protein insertion in the inner membrane with the TIM22 complex.     

The Mas20p and Mas70p subunits of the protein import receptor of yeast mitochondria interact via the tetratricopeptide repeat motif in Mas20p: evidence for a single hetero-oligomeric receptor.

Protein import into yeast mitochondria is mediated by four integral outer membrane proteins which function as import receptors. These proteins (termed Mas20p, Mas22p, Mas37p and Mas70p) appear to exist as two subcomplexes: a Mas37p-Mas70p heterodimer and a less well characterized Mas20p-Mas22p complex. The subcomplexes interact functionally during protein import, but it has remained uncertain whether they are in direct contact with each other in vivo. Here we show that Mas20p and Mas70p can be cross-linked in intact mitochondria, or co-immunoprecipitated from digitonin-solubilized mitochondria. Furthermore, the cytosolic domains of these two proteins interact in the 'two-hybrid' system. Association of Mas20p and Mas70p is virtually abolished by a mutation in the single tetratricopeptide motif in Mas20p. This mutation specifically inhibits import of precursors that are first recognized by Mas37p-Mas70p and only then transferred to Mas20p-Mas22p. We conclude that the two receptor subcomplexes of the mitochondrial protein import receptor interact in vivo via their Mas20p and Mas70p subunits and that this interaction is functionally important.     

莲品种DNA指纹图谱的构建

为了克服单纯依据形态特性鉴定品种的局限性, 我们开展了莲品种DNA指纹图谱构建研究, 旨在对其品种的快速准确鉴定及专利权保护等起一定作用。本研究以圆明园保存的72个莲品种为实验材料, 用来自不同地点的1,409份野生莲(Nelumbo nucifera)和58份美洲黄莲(N. lutea)群体样本作遗传背景参照。从104对核微卫星引物(nSSR)中筛选出15对, 从17对叶绿体微卫星(cpSSR)引物中筛选出2对, 共17对引物作为72个莲品种DNA指纹鉴定的条码。15对nSSR引物共检测到94个等位基因(平均6.27个), 其中11个属于美洲黄莲, 65个属于野生莲, 18个不能区分; 多态信息含量(PIC)介于0.3899-0.8023之间 (平均0.5748)。2对cpSSR引物共检测到13个单倍型, 其中9个属于野生莲, 4个属于美洲黄莲。全部17对引物标记结果显示, 共有19个品种含有美洲黄莲遗传组分, 其中8个母系来源于美洲黄莲; 有36个品种(涉及12对引物)具有至少1个特有基因型; 最少8对引物组合可完全区分开68个品种。有2组共4个品种组内全部17对引物均不能区分。本研究通过核心引物组合法使68个莲品种获得特异性DNA指纹。推荐13对nSSR和2对cpSSR共15对引物作为莲品种鉴定的核心条码, 并建议将形态特征与DNA指纹相结合作为莲品种的鉴定标准。