Skylark optimal flight speeds for flying nowhere and somewhere

Flight is energetically very costly. For birds the mechanicalpower in relation to airspeed is characterized by a U-shapedfunction. From this function we can derive optimal flight speedsassociated with minimum power (V_mp), minimum cost of transport(V_mr) and minimum overall time of migration (V_mt). Since flightis energetically so costly, aerial displays and song flightcan potentially serve as signals reliably indicating the individualquality or resource potential of the signaler. In order to maximizethe amount of song flight produced, we expect V_mp during songflight, while during migration we rather expect V_mr or V_mv Wecompared flight speeds of skylarks (Alauda arvensis) duringsong flight and migration flight, respectively. In this speciespredicted V_mp = 5.5 m/s, V_mr = 10.5 m/s, and V_mt = 12.1 m/s.The preferred airspeed during song flight did not differ significantlyfrom the predicted V_mp, while airspeed during migration wassignificantly higher than V_mr and Vmp indicating that flightspeed is a flexible trait that birds adjust to different situations.Why the skylarks speed up so much on migration is still unclear,but it may be that due to the shape of the predicted power curve,variation in cost of transport at high speeds is relativelysmall.     

Flight speeds of central place foragers: female Lapland longspurs feeding nestlings

According to a recent model (Norberg 1981), birds feeding nestlings should fly faster than V_mr, the speed which minimizes the cost of transport over the ground. The flight speeds of female Lapland longspurs (Calcarius lapponicus) feeding nestlings were not significantly different from the predicted V_mr under various wind conditions. They were, however, significantly higher than the speed that minimizes the rate of energy expenditure (i.e. minimum power speed, V_mp) and significantly lower than the optimal speed (V_opt) predicted from Norberg's model. Thus, maximizing the distance travelled per unit energy expenditure appears to be the most important energetic factor affecting their flight speeds. We suggest that there may be no benefit to increasing air speed above V_mr when brood size is smaller than the maximum number that parents can successfully nourish, or when travel time makes up a small proportion of the total foraging time.     

Soaring across continents: decision‐making of a soaring migrant under changing atmospheric conditions along an entire flyway

Thermal soaring birds reduce flight‐energy costs by alternatingly gaining altitude in thermals and gliding across the earth's surface. To find out how soaring migrants adjust their flight behaviour to dynamic atmospheric conditions across entire migration routes, we combined optimal soaring migration theory with high‐resolution GPS tracking data of migrating honey buzzards Pernis apivorus and wind data from a global numerical atmospheric model. We compared measurements of gliding air speeds to predictions based on two distinct behavioural benchmarks for thermal soaring flight. The first being a time‐optimal strategy whereby birds alter their gliding air speeds as a function of climb rates to maximize cross‐country air speed over a full climb– glide cycle (V_opt). The second a risk‐averse energy‐efficient strategy at which birds alter their gliding air speed in response to tailwinds/headwinds to maximize the distance travelled in the intended direction during each glide phase (V_bgw). Honey buzzards were gliding on average 2.05 ms^{– 1} slower than V_opt and 3.42 ms^{– 1} faster than V_bgw while they increased air speeds with climb rates and reduced air speeds in tailwinds. They adopted flexible flight strategies gliding mostly near V_bgw under poor soaring conditions and closer to V_opt in good soaring conditions. Honey buzzards most adopted a time‐optimal strategy when crossing the Sahara, and at the onset of spring migration, where and when they met with the best soaring conditions. The buzzards nevertheless glided slower than V_opt during most of their journeys, probably taking time to navigate, orientate and locate suitable thermals, especially in areas with poor thermal convection. Linking novel tracking techniques with optimal migration models clarifies the way birds balance different tradeoffs during migration.     

Flight speeds of swifts (Apus apus): seasonal differences smaller than expected

We have studied the nocturnal flight behaviour of the common swift (Apus apus L.), by the use of a tracking radar. Birds were tracked from Lund University in southern Sweden during spring migration, summer roosting flights and autumn migration. Flight speeds were compared with predictions from flight mechanical and optimal migration theories. During spring, flight speeds were predicted to be higher than during both summer and autumn due to time restriction. In such cases, birds fly at a flight speed that maximizes the overall speed of migration. For summer roosting flights, speeds were predicted to be lower than during both spring and autumn since the predicted flight speed is the minimum power speed that involves the lowest energy consumption per unit time. During autumn, we expected flight speeds to be higher than during summer but lower than during spring since the expected flight speed is the maximum range speed, which involves the lowest energy consumption per unit distance. Flight speeds during spring were indeed higher than during both summer and autumn, which indicates time-selected spring migration. Speeds during autumn migration were very similar to those recorded during summer roosting flights. The general result shows that swifts change their flight speed between different flight behaviours to a smaller extent than expected. Furthermore, the difference between flight speeds during migration and roosting among swifts was found to be less pronounced than previously recorded.     

Diurnal mixed layers and the long-term dominance of Microcystis aeruginosa

The population dynamics of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosain a hypertrophic, subtropical lake (Hartbeespoort Dam, SouthAfrica) were followed over 4.5 years. We examined the hypothesisthat M.aeruginosa dominated (>80% by volume) the phytoplanktonpopulation up to 10 months of each year because it maintaineditself within shallow diurnal mixed layers and was thus ensuredaccess to light, the major limiting resource. Wind speeds overHartbeespoort Dam were strong enough to mix the entire epilimnionthrough Langmuir circulations only 12% of the time. At othertimes solar heating led to the formation of diurnal mixed layers(z₁) that were shallower (<2 m) than the euphotic zone (z_cu;mean = 3.5 m, range: 0.45–8.4 m) while the seasonal mixedlayer (z_m) was always deeper than z_cu (range: 7–18 m).By means of its buoyancy mechanism M.aeruginosa maintained thebulk of its population within z₁, while non-buoyant speciessank into dark layers. Adaptation to strong light intensitywas implicated from low cellular chlorophyll a content (0.132µg/106 cells) and high I_k (up to 1230 µE m^–2s^–1). Ensured access to light, the post-maximum summerpopulations persisted throughout autumn and winter, despitesuboptimal temperatures, by sustaining low losses. Increasedsedimentation losses caused a sharp decline of the populationat the end of winter each year, and a short (2–3 months)successional episode followed, but by late spring M.aeruginosawas again dominant. The data from Hartbeespoort Dam point outthe importance of distinguishing between z_m and z₁, and showthe profound effect that the daily pattern of z₁ as opposedto the seasonal pattern of z_m, can have on phytoplankton populationspecies composition.     

The Steady State Chlorophyll a Fluorescence Exhibits in Vivo an Optimum as a Function of Light Intensity which Reflects the Physiological State of the Plant

Modulated (690 and 730 nm), as well as direct chlorophyll (Chl)a fluorescence and changes in the concentration of the oxidizedP700 were measured under steady state conditions in leaves ofhigher plants adapted to different light intensities. All theleaf samples exhibit an optimum curve of steady state fluorescenceyield (F_s) versus the light intensity but its position withrespect to light intensity varies considerably from one speciesto another or from one sample to other even in the same plantor within the same leaf sample. However, the optimum level ofF_s was always at a moderate light intensity. By using the modulatedfluorescence technique, the system with all closed (F^l_m) oropen reaction center (F^l_o) were measured in steady state conditions.Each experimentally measured fluorescence yield was separatedinto a fluorescence emission of open (F_open = F^l_o,(1—V_s))and closed (F_closed = (F^l_m . V_s)) reaction center (RC) of photosystemII where V_s=(F_s – F^l_o)/(F^l_m – F^l_o) is the functionof fraction of closed reaction centers. With increasing lightintensity, the fraction of open RC decreased while the fractionof closed RC increased. Maximum quantum efficiency (P_o) andactual quantum efficiency (P) decreased by increasing lightintensity. An optimum level of F_s was observed, when the fractionof closed reaction centers V_s of each sample was about 0.2 showinga common quenching mechanism which determines the fluorescenceproperties under steady state condition. This explains the apparentphenomenological contradiction that the fluorescence yield understeady state conditions can increase or decrease upon an increaseof actinic light. (Received December 31, 1994; Accepted May 1, 1995)     

Demonstration of Voltage Dependency of Light-induced Potential Change in Chara

The electromotive force (E_m) of the plasma membrane of the tonoplast-freecell of Chara australis decreased when the electrogenic pumpwas stopped by removing ATP or Mg²⁺ from the cell. Such a cellshowed a rapid light-induced potential change (rLPC). Threefactors were considered to be responsible for the generationof rLPC; removal of Mg-ATP, stoppage of the electrogenic pumpand membrane depolarization per se. Tonoplast-free cells having enough Mg-ATP occasionally showedsmall E_m (–87— –116 mV) due to stoppage ofthe electrogenic pump. Since the rLPC was induced in such cells,removal of Mg-ATP cannot be the factor. Cells having large E_mdue to active pump activity also showed rLPC when the potentialdifference across the plasma membrane (V_m) was depolarized byan outward electric current; evidence that not the stoppageof the pump but membrane depolarization is a necessary conditionfor the generation of rLPC. In the rLPC Vm always changed in the negative direction. However,calculation of E_m revealed the existence of a reversal potential[ (E_m)rev] toward which E_m converged from either more negativeor more positive values. The (E_m)rev approximately coincidedwith the equilibrium potential for K⁺ across the plasma membrane.Intracellular anions occupying lower positions in the lyotropicseries inhibited rLPC. (Received February 9, 1981; Accepted May 16, 1981)     

Effect of complete protein 4.1R deficiency on ion transport properties of murine erythrocytes

Moderate hemolytic anemia, abnormal erythrocyte morphology (spherocytosis), and decreased membrane stability are observed in mice with complete deficiency of all erythroid protein 4.1 protein isoforms (4.1^–/–; Shi TS et al. J Clin Invest 103: 331, 1999). We have examined the effects of erythroid protein 4.1 (4.1R) deficiency on erythrocyte cation transport and volume regulation. 4.1^–/– mice exhibited erythrocyte dehydration that was associated with reduced cellular K and increased Na content. Increased Na permeability was observed in these mice, mostly mediated by Na/H exchange with normal Na-K pump and Na-K-2Cl cotransport activities. The Na/H exchange of 4.1^–/– erythrocytes was markedly activated by exposure to hypertonic conditions (18.2 ± 3.2 in 4.1^–/– vs. 9.8 ± 1.3 mmol/10¹³ cell x h in control mice), with an abnormal dependence on osmolality (EC₅₀ = 417 ± 42 in 4.1^–/– vs. 460 ± 35 mosmol/kgH₂O in control mice), suggestive of an upregulated functional state. While the affinity for internal protons was not altered (K_0.5 = 489.7 ± 0.7 vs. 537.0 ± 0.56 nM in control mice), the V_max of the H-induced Na/H exchange activity was markedly elevated in 4.1^–/– erythrocytes (V_max 91.47 ± 7.2 compared with 46.52 ± 5.4 mmol/10¹³ cell x h in control mice). Na/H exchange activation by okadaic acid was absent in 4.1^–/– erythrocytes. Altogether, these results suggest that erythroid protein 4.1 plays a major role in volume regulation and physiologically downregulates Na/H exchange in mouse erythrocytes. Upregulation of the Na/H exchange is an important contributor to the elevated cell Na content of 4.1^–/– erythrocytes. spherocytosis; cell Na; Na/H exchange     

Efficiency of K+ Utilization by Barley Varieties: Activation of Pyruvate Kinase

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) varieties differed in their raponseto [K⁺]₀, in terms of their utilization efficiencies (UE = freshweight. concentration of [K⁺]₁^–1). At low [K⁺]₀, Compana,an efficient-non-responder demonstrated superior utilizationof absorbed K⁺. On the other hand, at high [K⁺]₀, Fergus (anefficient responder) and BT 334 (an inefficient responder) hadhigher UE values for K⁺ than Compana which performed poorlyat this [K⁺]₀. Kinetic parameters for K⁺ activation of the enzyme pyruvatekinase from 12 barley varieties, representing a range of UEvalues, were determined. Varieties showed substantial differencesin their V_max values (P<0·01). Compana, an efficientvariety, had the highest V_max (31 µmol g^–1 freshwt. h^–1) which was about 50% higher than that of Mingo,an inefficient variety. By contrast, K_m values for the enzymeswere not significantly different among varieties The mean valuesfor all varieties (3·9±0·15 mol m^–3K⁺) is far below the estimated cytoplasmic [K⁺] (100-200 molm^–3). It is, therefore, unlikely that differences in theutilization of K⁺ by these varieties can be explained on thebasis of differential requirements for (K⁺) activation of theseenzymes. Alternative possibilities for differences in the utilizationof K⁺ are discussed. Key words: K⁺ utilization efficiency, Pyruvate kinase, Barley varieties     

Evidence for Several Galactan Synthases in Flax (Linum usitassimum L.) Suspension-Cultured Cells

A membrane fraction from flax cells was able to incorporate[¹⁴C]galactose from UDP-D-[¹⁴C]galactose in vitro. The productsof the reaction, characterized by methylation analysis, consistedof a rß-1,4-galactan (solubilized mainly in water)and a rß-1,3- rß-1,6-galactan (solubilizedmainly in alkali). These results indicated the presence of severalgalactan synthase complexes, as did a profile of the relationshipbetween pH and activity which revealed both a maximum at pH6.5 and a shoulder at pH 8. Moreover, galactan synthase activitieswere found at two densities: 1.125 g cm^–3 (Golgi membranes)and 1.07–1.08 g cm^–3 (corresponding to low-densityvesicles). Partial characterization of one enzymatic system (maximaly activeat pH 8 in the presence of 5 mM MgCl₂) was achieved. The K_mfor UDP-galactose and V_max were 38 µM and 4.5 nmol h^–1(mg protein)^–1, respectively. (Received June 6, 1993; Accepted September 22, 1993)     

Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia Exchange in the Trachypogon Savannas of the Orinoco Llanos

Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) and ammonia (NH₂) exchangeswere determined in the Trachypogon savannas of the Orinoco Llanosusing the energy balance approach. Total dry mass and separatedry mass values of plant parts were used for a growth analysisof the community and for measurements of nitrogen content. Duringthe growth period, the net assimilation (P₄₀) ranged from 0.102to 0.127 MJ m^–2 d^–1 (6.6–7.9 g dry mass m^–2d^–1). These figures were similar to mean crop growth ratemeasured using the mass balance approach (2.8–6.9 g drymass m^–2 d^–1). Analysis of the daily trend of theCO₂ assimilated by the community showed a low total energy conversionof net photosynthesis (_x = 0.7) compared with the values reportedfor tropical grasses. During the dry season, the community conserved71% of the maximum N accumulated during the previous wet season.Sixty-eight per cent of the community nitrogen content was lostas volatile NH₃ from the community during the reproductive period.Results suggested that the predominant net NH₃ efflux from thevegetation was determined by the low concentration of NH₃ inthe atmosphere ( 1.8 µg m^–2) and the compensationconcentration point. However, N losses were balanced by annualnitrogen input to the community from precipitation and biologicalfixation. Thus, a redistribution rather than a loss of nitrogenseems to be occurring in the ecosystem. Carbon dioxide fluxes, ammonia fluxes, Trachypogon savannas, energy balance, growth analysis     

Avoidance of headwinds or exploitation of ground effect—why do birds fly low?

ABSTRACT Birds often fly close to the ground or water. Wind shear theory predicts that wind speeds decline with proximity to the substratum, so birds might be expected to fly lower when flying upwind than when flying downwind. We tested this prediction and found that the wind shear equation is valid at heights below 4 m, with wind speed over a smooth surface ～40% lower at a height of 0.08 m than at 4 m. Birds that fly close enough to smooth substrata can also benefit energetically from ground effect, where vortices generated by their flight interact with the ground or water. This suggests that birds should use ground effect more when flying upwind than when flying downwind. We determined the percent time spent flying in ground effect by 21 species of passerine and non‐passerine birds flying in sheltered coastal aquatic and nearby terrestrial areas of County Cork, Ireland. We found that use of ground effect was uncommon for passerines, but common for a variety of non‐passerine waterbirds. However, phylogenetic analysis indicates no linkage between phylogeny and incidence of ground effect use and it is probable that incidence of use is determined by ecology rather than phylogeny. Great Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) used ground effect most frequently over water (59.4% of time in flight). Over land, Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica) used ground effect most often (19.8% of time). Phylogenetic contrasts regression analysis showed no significant relationship between use of ground effect and either wing aspect ratio or wing loading for 18 of our focal species, though simple linear regression analysis indicated that birds with greater wing loading used ground effect slightly (but significantly) more often. We found that 95% of Great Cormorants flying upwind used ground effect whereas only 35% did so when flying downwind. Few Black‐headed Gulls (Chroicocephalus ridibundus) used ground effect (probably because they fly high to locate prey), but still showed greater use when flying upwind (25%) than downwind (2.5%). When flying upwind in ground effect at the wind speeds encountered in our study, the velocity for minimum power (V_mp) for Great Cormorants was exceeded, suggesting theoretical benefits of about 14.3%. Our study indicates that several species exploit both wind shear and ground effect to minimize energy expenditure during commuting and foraging, but that others do not, because of either complexity of habitat morphology or the demands of their foraging ecology.     

Quantitative Analysis of ATP-Dependent H+ Efflux and Pump Current Driven by an Electrogenic Pump in Nitellopsis obtusa

Internodal cells of Nitellopsis were made tonoplast-free byperfusion with a medium containing EGTA. Cytoplasmic concentrationsof solutes were controlled by a second perfusion with mediaof known composition. The electrogenic pump current (I_p), whichwas calculated from electrical data obtained from cells withand without ATP, was compared with the current carried by H⁺(I_H⁺) across the plasma membrane. A close correlation betweenI_p and I_H⁺ was found under various internal and external conditions.(1) I_p and I_H⁺ depended on the internal ATP and showed Michaelis-Mententype saturation curves. For I_p, K_m was 120 µM and themaximum current V_max was 15.1 mA m^–2, while for I_H⁺, K_mwas 160 µM and V_max was 16.6 mA m^–2. (2) I_p andI_H⁺ showed almost the same I_H²⁺ dependence. The Mg²⁺-dependentI_p was 19.5 mA m^–2, while the Mg²⁺-dependent I_H²⁺ was17.7 mA m^–2. (3) I_H²⁺ was maximal at an external pH of8 and decreased both in acidic and alkaline pH ranges. I_p wasnearly equal to I_H⁺ in the pH range between 8 and 5. (4) I_H⁺became maximal at an internal pH of 7.3, which is nearly thesame as the pH for maximal electrogenecity found by Mimura andTazawa (1984). All these facts support the idea proposed in our previous paper(Takeshige et al. 1985) that the electrogenic ion pump locatedin the plasma membrane of Nitellopsis is the H⁺ pump. ¹ Dedicated to Professor Dr. Erwin Bünning on the occasionof his 80th birthday. (Received June 21, 1985; Accepted December 20, 1985)     

The Growth Rate of Successive Leaves of Wheat Plants in Relation to Sugar and Protein Concentrations in the Extension Zone

The growing part of a wheat leaf (the extension zone) is loocatedat the leaf base and following from this it was proposed thatthe absolute leaf extension rate (L_er) can be partitioned intotwo components: the length of the extension zone (L_ez) and therelative extension rate of that extension zone (R_ez). R_ez isan appropriate measure of the efficiency of leaf growth forcomparing different leaves. This model of a wheat leaf was thenused to investigate whether differences in growth rates betweensuccessive leaves on wheat plants were due to differences inhexose sugar or protein concentrations within the extensionzone. Measurements were done in an irrigated field crop suppliedwith 0, 3, 10, or 30 kg N ha^–1 per week. The mean values of L_er at 15 °C increased with leaf numberand with nitrogen supply as did values for L_ez. In contrastR_ez at 15 °C declined from 0.9 d^–1 for the first leavesto 0.3 d^–1 for the flag leaf. Nitrogen supply had littleeffect on R_ez. A separate measure of the efficiency of leafgrowth, the responsiveness of L_er to temperature (measured asthe slope of the temperature response curve), also decreasedwith leaf number by the same order as R_ez and was similarlyunaffected by nitrogen supply. The protein concentrations in the extension zones of the firstleaves were around 40 mg g^–1 fr. wt. and this declinedto approximately 20 mg g^–1 fr. wt for leaves emergingafter tillers emerged and remained low thereafter. Protein concentrationswere not correlated with the external supply of nitrogen. Hexosesugar concentrations followed a reverse pattern of increasingin the later order leaves and these also increased as nitrogensupply decreased. Both R_ez and the responsiveness of L_er to temperature were positivelycorrelated with the protein concentration, the relationshipin each case being described by a rectangular hyperbola equation(P < 0.01), and negatively correlated with hexose concentrations.It was concluded that internal competition between growing pointsfor reduced nitrogen caused the observed effects. However, differencesin protein concentrations may not simply reflect differencesin enzyme concentrations; rather these differences may indicatechanges in some other character such as cell numbers.     

硝酸镧对碱胁迫下黑麦草幼苗生长和光合生理的影响

在150 mmol·L^-1 NaHCO₃胁迫下,研究了不同浓度硝酸镧对黑麦草幼苗生长的影响及其对叶片光合生理响应的调节作用。结果表明,叶面喷施低浓度硝酸镧(0.05 mmol·L^-1)预处理显著减小了碱胁迫下黑麦草幼苗生物量、叶片叶绿素和类胡萝卜素含量、叶绿体希尔反应、光合电子传递、光合磷酸化、Mg²⁺ ATP酶、RuBP羧化酶活性和光合效率的下降幅度,却对光呼吸调节酶乙醇酸氧化酶活性无明显影响。而高浓度硝酸镧(0.5 mmol·L^-1)预处理不仅对碱胁迫没有缓解作用,反而加重了碱胁迫伤害。因此,适宜浓度硝酸镧可以通过改善光合功能从而缓解碱胁迫对黑麦草幼苗生长的抑制作用。     

Effects of Osmotic Stress, Salt Stress and IAA on the Regeneration of the Resting Membrane Potential after Excision of a Segment from an Intact Plant

Effects of osmotic stress, salt stress and IAA on the regenerationprocess of the transmembrane potential across the xylem/symplastinterface (V_px) of newly excised hypocotyl segments of Vignaseedlings were examined by means of the xylem perfusion method.It took about 8 h under ordinary conditions for an excised segmentto regenerate a membrane potential comparable with that of anintact seedling. Osmotic stress imposed by perfusion of 100-200mM sorbitol solution seemed to accelerate this process. Thiseffect diminished with the removal of sorbitol from the perfusionsolution. The increase in the negativity of V_px in this regenerationprocess resulted from the increases in both passive (V_px inN₂) and respiration-dependent components (V_px). NaCl (50–100mM) did not accelerate the regeneration of the total membranepotential, but significantly promoted an increase in V_px, i.e.electrogenic xylem pump activity. Perfusion of KC1 (50–100mM) or IAA (10^–4M) shortened the regeneration phase upto 2–3 h. The increase in total V_px under salt stressor IAA mainly resulted from the increase of V_px. The effectof those agents on the V_px is discussed, as is the questionof whether the increase in PD after excision should be interpretedas a recovery or regeneration from injury by excision, or asa so-called release from hormonal control. (Received September 3, 1987; Accepted March 14, 1988)     

Heritability of three condition surrogates in the yellow dung fly

Condition capture has been proposed as a general mechanism maintainingadditive genetic variation, V_a, in sexually selected traitsunder directional selection. It relies on two main assumptions:condition-dependent trait expression and V_a in condition. Althoughthere is evidence for the former, direct evidence that conditionis heritable is scarce, although this is a requirement of mostmodels of handicap sexual selection. We used a parent–offspring,full-sib, two-container laboratory breeding design in the yellowdung fly Scathophaga stercoraria to demonstrate the broad- andnarrow-sense heritability of three surrogates of condition commonlyused in sexual selection studies: lipid and glycogen reserves(i.e., physiological condition), body size, and fluctuatingasymmetry. All three measures are nutrition dependent and havebeen linked to sexual selection in free-living yellow dung flies.While lipid reserves and body size were heritable, asymmetryand glycogen reserves were not. Moreover, the evolvability ofphysiological condition was higher than that of the other twotraits. Of the three surrogates, physiological condition ismost akin to the original definition, but all have their limitations.We conclude that condition is a useful heuristic concept inevolutionary ecology, but its practical value may be limitedby the fact that it cannot be measured directly.     

Urea uptake by phytoplankton at various stages of nutrient depletion

Uptake of ¹⁴C-urea by Thalassiosira pseudonana and Skeletonemacostatum grown in batch culture with NO₂^– and NO₃^–as nitrogen sources was measured under three conditions: pre-depletion(when nitrogenous nutrient was present in the culture mediumat saturating concentrations), at-depletion (when nitrogenousnutrient could no longer be detected), and several hours post-depletion.V_max-urea, the initial instantaneous uptake rate, remained constantunder all three conditions, and was in excess of uptake ratesrequired for cellular doubling. Variations in uptake under thethree conditions were observed, as functions of the length oftime over which uptake was observed and the growth rate of theculture. The maximum instantaneous uptake rate was not differentfor the three conditions; variations in uptake were due to theperiod of time over which the maximum uptake rate was maintained.The ability of cells to take up urea rapidly, even when adequatelynourished by NO₂^– and NO₃^–, could be of significancein a low and variable urea-nutrient regime in the natural environment.     

The Diffusive Conductivity of the Stomata of Wheat Leaves

A leaf chamber (described in detail) was used alternately witha resistance porometer to measure resistance to viscous flowof air through the leaf, and with a diffusion porometer to measurethe differential diffusive flow of hydrogen and air (V_H–V_A)through the leaf and the component of hydrogen flow (V'_H) movingstraight across the leaf. The resistance of the mesophyll isneeded for interpretation: estimates by three different methodsfor viscous flow did not agree very well, but two differentmethods for diffusive flow gave good agreement. For wheat leaves,only very large errors are important. Formal analysis is in three appendixes: I. Interpretation ofviscous and diffusive flow in small pores involves some problemsin molecular physics, complicated by the particular geometryof the wheat stoma. With some uncertainty, formal expressionsare derived for the viscous resistance of a single stoma, rv,and for the resistances to diffusion of hydrogen and air, andof water vapour and carbon dioxide, all expressed as r_s persquare centimetre of leaf surface. The analysis for hydrogen/airis the most uncertain; that for water vapour and carbon dioxideis more reliable. II. An indication is given of the flow characteristicsof the leaf-chamber system, from which rv can be derived, andof the basis for estimating mesophyll resistance. III. The methodof converting estimates of r_s into estimates of V_H–V_Aand V'_H is given. The results presented are expressed as nearly as possible interms of the quantities which were measured. For five leavesthe dependence of V_H–V_A on V'_H agrees well with theoreticalpredictions; the dependence of V_H–V_A (and V'_H) on rv,on average, agrees well with prediction, but involves the assumptionthat the stomata get shorter as they close. The agreement isgood enough to suggest that the formal expressions for r_s interms of stomatal dimensions and molecular gas constants arereliable enough to be carried forward into future transpirationand assimilation studies. The minimum value of ra for watervapour (c. 3 sec cm⁺¹) is close to values found elsewhere bydifferent techniques. At very small stomatal openings there was a large deviationfrom predicted behaviour, such as would occur if the imposedexcess air pressure further closed the stomata during viscousflow experiments.     

Effect of Elevated CO2 on the Photosynthesis, Respiration and Growth of Perennial Ryegrass

Single, seed-grown plants of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. cv.Melle) were grown for 49 d from the early seedling stage ingrowth cabinets at a day/night temperature of 20/15 C, witha 12 h photoperiod, and a CO₂ concentration of either 340 or680µI 1^–1 CO₂. Following complete acclimation tothe environmental regimes, leaf and whole plant CO₂ effluxesand influxes were measured using infra-red gas analysis techniques.Elevated CO₂ increased rates of photosynthesis of young, fullyexpanded leaves by 35–46% and of whole plants by morethan 50%. For both leaves and whole plants acclimation to 680µI^–1 CO₂ reduced rates of photosynthesis in bothCO₂ regimes, compared with plants acclimated to 340µll^–1. There was no significant effect of CO₂ regime onrespiration rates of either leaves or whole plants, althoughleaves developed in elevated CO₂ exhibited generally lower ratesthan those developed in 340µI I^–1 CO₂. Initially the seedling plants in elevated CO₂ grew faster thantheir counterparts in 340µI I^–1 CO₂, but this effectquickly petered out and final plant weights differed by onlyc. 10%. Since the total area of expanded and unexpanded laminaewas unaffected by CO₂ regime, specific leaf area was persistently13–40% lower in elevated CO₂ while, similarly, root/shootratio was also reduced throughout the experiment. Elevated CO₂reduced tissue nitrogen contents of expanded leaves, but hadno effect on the nitrogen contents of unexpanded leaves, sheathsor roots. The lack of a pronounced effect of elevated CO₂ on plant growthwas primarily due to the fact that CO₂ concentration did notinfluence tiller (branch) numbers. In the absence of an effecton tiller numbers, any possible weight increment was restrictedto the c. 2.5 leaves of each tiller. The reason for the lackof an effect on tillering is not known. Key words: Lolium perenne, ryegrass, elevated CO₂, photosynthesis, respiration, growth, development