Correlations between meals and inter-meal intervals in Japanese quail and their significance in the control of feeding

Significant correlations (P<0.05) between meals and preceding intervals were shown more often by Japanese quail when fed on diluted mash (40% cellulose) than with undiluted mash or pellets. They showed significant correlations between meals and succeeding intervals with about the same frequency on all three foods. Most of the correlation coefficients were low, but experiments in which interval length and meal size were manipulated artificially confirmed that close relationships between meals and intervals can occur, and appear to verify the existence of short-term hunger and satiety mechanisms. Possible explanations for the low correlation coefficients shown by several bird species are discussed, and it is concluded that meal-eating is controlled by a very flexible system. There is no evidence that the timing of meals depends on fixed set points, and it is suggested instead that degrees of hunger and satiety may determine the probabilities of a meal starting or stopping, such a system being associated with emptying and filling of parts of the digestive tract.     

Food Form and Portion Size Affect Postprandial Appetite Sensations and Hormonal Responses in Healthy,Nonobese, Older Adults

Data are limited concerning the dietary factors that influence appetite control in older adults. This study examined the effects of food form and portion size on appetite in 43 older adults (age: 72 ± 1 years; BMI: 25.6 ± 0.3 kg/m²). Subjects were assigned to groups based on portion size of the test meal (12.5% (n = 18) vs. 25% (n = 25) of estimated energy need). Subjects randomly consumed, on two separate days, the respective solid or beverage test meal. Appetite sensations and hormonal responses were measured over 4 h. Main effects of food form (P < 0.05) and/or portion size (P < 0.05) were observed for each appetite sensation. Postprandial hunger and desire to eat were greater following beverage vs. solid meal (between 12.5% vs. 25%), whereas fullness was lower after beverage vs. solid meal (P < 0.05). Main effects of food form and/or portion size were observed for glucose, insulin, and ghrelin. Postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations were lower after beverage vs. solid meal (between 12.5% vs. 25%; all comparisons, P < 0.05) whereas beverage meal led to greater 4‐h ghrelin vs. solid meal (P = 0.09). No main effects were observed for glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) or cholecystokinin (CCK). When adjusting for age, food form remained significant for postprandial hunger and fullness; portion size remained significant for postprandial glucose. Greater hunger and reduced satiety with accompanying glucose, insulin, and ghrelin following the beverage vs. solid meals, and to some extent, in smaller vs. larger portions suggest that appetite control is influenced by food form and portion size in older adults. These findings may enhance the development of appropriate dietary strategies that help to regulate energy balance.     

Enhancement of intragastric acid stability of a fat emulsion meal delays gastric emptying and increases cholecystokinin release and gallbladder contraction

Preprocessed fatty foods often contain calories added as a fat emulsion stabilized by emulsifiers. Emulsion stability in the acidic gastric environment can readily be manipulated by altering emulsifier chemistry. We tested the hypothesis that it would be possible to control gastric emptying, CCK release, and satiety by varying intragastric fat emulsion stability. Nine healthy volunteers received a test meal on two occasions, comprising a 500-ml 15% oil emulsion with 2.5% of one of two emulsifiers that produced emulsions that were either stable (meal A) or unstable (meal B) in the acid gastric environment. Gastric emptying and gallbladder volume changes were assessed by MRI. CCK plasma levels were measured and satiety scores were recorded. Meal B layered rapidly owing to fat emulsion breakdown. The gastric half-emptying time of the aqueous phase was faster for meal B (72 +/- 13 min) than for meal A (171 +/- 35 min, P < 0.008). Meal A released more CCK than meal B (integrated areas, respectively 1,095 +/- 244 and 531 +/- 111 pmol.min.l(-1), P < 0.02), induced a greater gallbladder contraction (P < 0.02), and decreased postprandial appetite (P < 0.05), although no significant differences were observed in fullness and hunger. We conclude that acid-stable emulsions delayed gastric emptying and increased postprandial CCK levels and gallbladder contraction, whereas acid-instability led to rapid layering of fat in the gastric lumen with accelerated gastric emptying, lower CCK levels, and reduced gallbladder contraction. Manipulation of the acid stability of fat emulsion added to preprocessed foods could maximize satiety signaling and, in turn, help to reduce overconsumption of calories.     

Dietary supplementation of fructooligosaccharide (FOS) improves the innate immune response, stress resistance, digestive enzyme activities and growth performance of Caspian roach (Rutilus rutilus) fry

The present study investigated the effects of prebiotic fructooligosaccharide (FOS) on the innate immune response, stress resistance, digestive enzyme activities, growth factors and survival of Caspian Roach (Rutilus rutilus) fry. After acclimation, fish (0.67 ± 0.03 g) were allocated into 12 tanks (50 fish per tank) and triplicate groups were fed a control diet or diets containing 1%, 2% or 3% FOS. At the end of the trial (7 weeks), humoral innate immune parameters (serum Ig levels, lysozyme activity and alternative complement activity (ACH50)), resistance to salinity stress (150 g L⁻¹), digestive enzyme activities (amylase, lipase and protease) and growth factors (final weight, weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR), food conversion ratio (FCR), and condition factor) were assessed. At the end of the study the innate immune responses (Ig levels, lysozyme activity and ACH50) were significantly higher in 2% and 3% FOS fed fish (P < 0.05), whereas, 1% dietary FOS only elevated serum lysozyme activity. All dietary FOS levels significantly increased resistance to a salinity stress challenge (P < 0.05) and highest survival was observed in the 3% FOS group. Similarly, digestive enzyme activities were significantly elevated with increasing levels of dietary FOS (P < 0.05). Subsequently, elevated growth performance (final weight, SGR and FCR) was observed in roach fed 2% and 3% FOS compared to the control group (P < 0.05). These results indicate that FOS can be considered as a beneficial dietary supplement for improving the immune response, stress resistance, digestive enzyme activities and growth performance of Caspian roach fry.     

Sucralfate delays gastric emptying of liquids and solids in duodenal ulcer patients

Gastric emptying studies were performed on nine healthy volunteers and ten duodenal ulcer (DU) patients utilizing a dual radionuclide technique to assess simultaneously emptying rates of liquid (¹¹¹In labeled water) and solid (^99mTc sulfur colloid labeled chicken liver) components of a meal. One gram of sucralfate was compared to placebo in separate days in a randomized double-blind crossover fashion. Subjects ingested the radiolabeled test meal 1 h after receiving medication, and gastric emptying was monitored for 3 h using a γ camera interfaced with a computer. We found that DU patients had significantly faster gastric emptying of solids (P < 0.05) compared to normals on the placebo days, while liquid emptying rates were similar. Sucralfate, in the DU patients, significantly (P < 0.05) slowed gastric emptying of water from 20 to 40 min and emptying of the solid component from 100–160 min after the meal compared to placebo. In normal subjects, gastric emptying of liquids and solids was not significantly affected by sucralfate.We conclude that slowing of gastric emptying, possibly mediated through aluminum ions, occurs in DU patients on sucralfate. This may be one mechanism by which sucralfate enhances healing and decreases recurrence of duodenal ulcer.     

Effects of posture on gastric emptying and satiety ratings after a nutritive liquid and solid meal

To study the effects of posture and meal structure on gastric emptying and satiety, nine women ingested tomato soup and then immediately or 20 min later an egg sandwich, when seated and when supine. The lag time was not different, but the half-emptying time of the sandwich was 32% longer (P < 0.01) and the emptying rate after the lag phase was 39% slower (P < 0.01) when the subjects were supine than when they were seated. The half-emptying time of the soup was 50% longer (P < 0.01) when the subjects were supine and ingested the soup immediately before the sandwich than in the other three conditions. Postprandial hunger ratings recovered more slowly (P < 0.01) when the subjects ingested the soup 20 min before the sandwich than when they ingested the soup immediately before the sandwich. These results suggest that posture did not affect the intragastric distribution of the sandwich but affected propulsion of the meal into the intestine and that postprandial satiety was enhanced by the cumulative effect over time of a 20-min "head start" in stimulation of intestinal receptors by emptying of the soup.     

The effects of dietary Betaplus® and TechnoMos® on growth performance,blood parameters,and intestinal microflora in juvenile kutum,Rutilus kutum (Kamensky, 1901)

The main goal of the current study was to assess the combined effects of a dietary probiotic Betaplus and prebiotic TechnoMos on growth performance, blood biochemical parameters, and intestinal microflora in juvenile Rutilus kutum. Four experimental diets were prepared with the addition of Betaplus and/or TechnoMos to a basal diet for R. kutum juveniles. The diets were randomly assigned to one of 12 tanks, with three replications per diet. The results showed that supplementation of both pro‐ and prebiotic, separately or in combination, improved fish growth parameters (p < .05). These additives also reduced fish mortality rates, either alone or in combination (p < .05). Protein content of the carcass increased by an addition of Betaplus (p < .05), but Betaplus supplementation reduced the fat content of the carcass (p < .05). Bacillus leicheniformis and B. subtilis counts were elevated by the addition of Betaplus and TechnoMos, with even a larger bacterial count observed in fish fed a mixed diet of pro‐ and prebiotics (p < .05). White blood cell counts increased with both pro‐ and prebiotic supplementations. Glucose and cortisol levels significantly decreased with the administration of Betaplus and TechnoMos, and the mixed treatment showed the lowest estimate of these parameters (p < .05). In conclusion, a better performance of juvenile R. kutum fed a diet mixture of Betaplus and TechnoMos is probably related to the elevation of Lactobacillus counts in the fish gut, which improves the digestive performance.     

The Influence of Higher Protein Intake and Greater Eating Frequency on Appetite Control in Overweight and Obese Men

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of dietary protein intake and eating frequency on perceived appetite, satiety, and hormonal responses in overweight/obese men. Thirteen men (age 51 ± 4 years; BMI 31.3 ± 0.8 kg/m²) consumed eucaloric diets containing normal protein (79 ± 2 g protein/day; 14% of energy intake as protein) or higher protein (138 ± 3 g protein/day; 25% of energy intake as protein) equally divided among three eating occasions (3‐EO; every 4 h) or six eating occasions (6‐EO; every 2 h) on four separate days in randomized order. Hunger, fullness, plasma glucose, and hormonal responses were assessed throughout 11 h. No protein × eating frequency interactions were observed for any of the outcomes. Independent of eating frequency, higher protein led to greater daily fullness (P < 0.05) and peptide YY (PYY) concentrations (P < 0.05). In contrast, higher protein led to greater daily ghrelin concentrations (P < 0.05) vs. normal protein. Protein quantity did not influence daily hunger, glucose, or insulin concentrations. Independent of dietary protein, 6‐EO led to lower daily fullness (P < 0.05) and PYY concentrations (P < 0.05). The 6‐EO also led to lower glucose (P < 0.05) and insulin concentrations (P < 0.05) vs. 3‐EO. Although the hunger‐related perceived sensations and hormonal responses were conflicting, the fullness‐related responses were consistently greater with higher protein intake but lower with increased eating frequency. Collectively, these data suggest that higher protein intake promotes satiety and challenge the concept that increasing the number of eating occasions enhances satiety in overweight and obese men.     

Postprandial profiles of CCK after high fat and high carbohydrate meals and the relationship to satiety in humans

ContextCCK is understood to play a major role in appetite regulation. Difficulties in measuring CCK have limited the potential to assess its profile in relation to food-induced satiety. Improvements in methodology and progress in theoretical understanding of satiety/satiation make it timely for this to be revisited.ObjectiveFirst, examine how physiologically relevant postprandial CCK8/33(s) profiles are influenced by fat (HF) or carbohydrate (HCHO) meals. Second, to examine relationships between postprandial CCK and profiles of satiety (hunger/fullness) and satiation (meal size).Participants and designSixteen overweight/obese adults (11 females/5 males) participated in a randomised-crossover study (46 years, 29.8 kg/m²) in a university research centre. Plasma was collected preprandially and for 180 min postprandially. Simultaneously, ratings of hunger/fullness were tracked for 180 min before an ad libitum lunch was provided.ResultsCCK8/33(s) levels increased more rapidly and reached a higher peak following HF compared to HCHO breakfast (F_(1,15) = 14.737, p < 0.01). Profiles of hunger/fullness did not differ between conditions (F_(1,15) = 0.505, p = 0.488; F_(1,15) = 2.277, p = 0.152). There was no difference in energy intake from the ad libitum meal (HF-3958 versus HCHO-3925 kJ; t₍₁₄₎ = 0.201, p = 0.844). CCK8/33(s) profiles were not associated with subjective appetite during early and late phases of satiety; nor was there an association between CCK8/33(s) and meal size.ConclusionsThese results demonstrate CCK levels were higher after HF meal compared to HCHO isocaloric meal. There was no association between CCK levels and intensity of satiety, or with meal size. Under these circumstances, CCK does not appear to play a unique independent role in satiety/satiation. CCK probably acts in conjunction with other peptides and the action of the stomach.     

Peripheral administration of GLP-2 to humans has no effect on gastric emptying or satiety

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) are secreted in parallel to the circulation after a meal. Intravenous (IV) GLP-1 has an inhibitory effect on gastric emptying, hunger and food intake in man. In rodents, central administration of GLP-2 increases satiety similar to GLP-1. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of IV administered GLP-2 on gastric emptying and feelings of hunger in human volunteers. In eight (five men) healthy subjects (age 31.1+/-2.9 years and BMI 24.1+/-1.0 kg m(-2)), scintigraphic solid gastric emptying, hunger ratings (VAS) and plasma concentrations of GLP-2 were studied during infusion of saline or GLP-2 (0.75 and 2.25 pmol kg(-1) min(-1)) for a total of 180 min. Concentrations of GLP-2 were elevated to a maximum of 50 and 110 pmol l(-1) for 0.75 and 2.25 pmol kg(-1) min(-1) infusion of GLP-2, respectively. There was no effect of GLP-2 on either the lag phase (29.5+/-4.4, 26.0+/-5.2 and 21.2+/-3.6 min for saline, GLP-2 0.75 or 2.25 pmol kg(-1) min(-1), respectively) or the half emptying time (84.5+/-6.1, 89.5+/-17.8 and 85.0+/-7.0 min for saline, GLP-2 0.75 or 2.25 pmol kg(-1) min(-1), respectively). The change in hunger rating after the meal to 180 min was also unaffected by infusion of GLP-2. GLP-2 does not seem to mediate the ileal brake mechanism.     

Post-exercise gastric emptying of carbohydrate solutions determined using the 13C acetate breath test

In an attempt to measure gastric emptying of carbohydrate solutions after exercise, we used the ¹³C acetate breath test to differentiate the gastric emptying of three approximately isoenergetic carbohydrate solutions (i.e. glucose, glucose polymer and sucrose) from each other and from water. On four separate occasions, six post-absorptive subjects walked on an inclined treadmill at 70% maximum oxygen uptake for 1 h and were then given 330 ml of one of the solutions in which 150 mg of sodium 1-[¹³C] acetate had been dissolved. Breath samples were collected at regular (2–30 min) intervals over the next 3.5 h for analysis of expired ¹³CO₂ by isotope ratio mass spectrometry. When water was given, all subjects reached peak breath enrichment after 30 min, and had a mean (SE) gastric emptying time of 33.2 (1.6) min. Peak breath enrichment occurred later for sucrose and glucose polymer at 54.3 (3.1) min and 59.0 (2.1) min respectively (P < 0.01), and for glucose this was even later, at 62.3 (1.0) min (P < 0.05). Calculated gastric emptying times for sucrose and glucose polymer were almost identical [66.5 (2.5) and 69.8 (2.9) min respectively], whereas that for glucose was significantly slower [76.8 (3.2) min; P < 0.02], probably reflecting the effects of increased osmolality. The gastric emptying of all carbohydrates were significantly longer than for water (P < 0.01). These results show that in the post-exercise state the ¹³C acetate breath test can be used to differentiate the gastric emptying rates of water and carbohydrate solutions of different properties.     

Effect of exercise timing on postprandial lipemia and HDL cholesterol subfractions

The purpose ofthe study was to examine the effect of exercise timing on postprandiallipemia responses. Subjects were 21 recreationally trained men (ages 27 ± 1.7 yr). Each subject performed four trials:1) Control (fat meal only),2) Post (exercise 1 h after a fat meal), 3) 1 h-Pre(exercise 1 h before a fat meal), and4) 12 h-Pre (exercise 12 h before afat meal). In each trial, subjects had a standard fat meal to inducepostprandial hypertriglyceridemia. Blood samples were taken at 0 h(immediately before the fat meal) and at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 24 h after themeal. In the exercise trials, each subject exercised at 60% of maximalO₂ consumption for 1 h. Theresults indicated that triglyceride area under the curve scores inpremeal-exercise trials were lower (P < 0.05) than those in Post and Control. At 24 h, total high-densitylipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol in the premeal-exercise trials was higher(P < 0.05) than that at 0 h, whereastotal HDL-cholesterol was not changed in Control and Post. At 24 h, HDLsubtype 2-cholesterol was higher (P < 0.05) in the premeal-exercise trials than in Control, which did not differ from Post. These results suggest that exercising before a fatmeal may have a beneficial effect on the triglyceride response and HDLmetabolism, which may blunt atherosclerotic process induced by the fatmeal.

     

Gastric Pacing for Morbid Obesity: Plasma Levels of Gastrointestinal Peptides and Leptin

Objective: A gastric pacemaker has been developed to treat morbid obesity. Patients experience increased satiety, the ability to reduce food intake, and a resultant weight loss. However, the mechanism behind the changed eating behavior in paced patients is still under investigation. Research Methods and Procedures: This study was performed on 11 morbidly obese patients (mean BMI, 46.0 kg/m²) treated with gastric pacing. The peripheral blood levels of satiety signals of cholecystokinin (CCK), somatostatin, glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1), and leptin were studied 1 month before gastric pacer implantation, 1 month after implantation, and 6 months after activation of electrical stimulation. Blood samples were drawn 12 hours after fasting and in response to a hypocaloric meal (270 kcal). Patients were followed monthly for vital signs and weight level. Results: Gastric pacing resulted in a significant weight loss of a mean of 10.4 kg (4.4 BMI units). No negative side effects or complications were observed during the treatment. After activation of the pacemaker, meal‐related response of CCK and somatostatin and basal levels of GLP‐1 and leptin were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) compared with the tests before gastric pacing. The weight loss correlated significantly with a decrease of leptin levels (R = 0.79, p < 0.01). Discussion: Gastric pacing is a novel and promising therapy for morbid obesity. Activation of the gastric pacer was associated with a decrease in plasma levels of CCK, somatostatin, GLP‐1, and leptin. More studies are necessary to elucidate the correlations between satiety, weight loss, and digestive neuro‐hormone changes.     

Lack of Evidence for a Marked Endogenous Component Determining Food Intake in Humans During Forced Desynchrony

In an attempt to investigate the relative importance of endogenous and exogenous factors in determining food intake, 14 healthy subjects were studied while living in an Isolation Unit (where external time cues were absent) for eighteen 28 h “days” (equal to 21 solar days). The subjects were free to spend their waking time as they chose, and they had a free choice of what they ate and when they ate it. The only restrictions were that no naps were allowed in the “daytime,” that some time was required to perform a variety of tests at regular intervals throughout the 18.67 h waking periods, and that any food preparation had to be performed by the subjects themselves. Core (rectal) temperature and activity were monitored throughout, and the subjects answered a questionnaire on their eating habits at 3 h intervals during the waking periods. The questionnaire investigated reasons for eating or not eating a meal during the previous 3 h and, if a meal had been eaten, its type, the factors influencing that choice, and the subjects’ subjective responses (hunger before, enjoyment during, and satiety after) to it. The results were analyzed (two-way ANOVA) in terms of both the imposed day length (the exogenous component) and the free-running period of the temperature rhythm (the endogenous component). Results indicated that by far the main reason for eating/not eating was hunger/lack of hunger rather than factors such as food availability and time-pressure. There were statistically significant effects of time within the imposed waking periods upon the type of meal eaten—“breakfast” tending to be a snack, “lunch” a small hot meal, and the “evening meal” a large hot meal. Hot meals (whether small or large) were associated with more hunger before the meal, more enjoyment of the meal, and a greater degree of satiety afterward than were cold meals. These effects suggest that the individuals adjusted their eating habits to fit in with the imposed wake times. By contrast, the effect of circadian phase upon food intake, the type of meal eaten, and subjective responses to the meal was much weaker, and either statistically nonsignificant (P > 0.10) or only marginally so (0.10 > P > 0.05). For example, a large hot meal was chosen as readily for an “evening meal,” and subjective responses to it were the same, at whatever circadian phase it was eaten. We conclude that food intake during forced desynchronization is dominated by the waking schedule rather than by circadian influences; some of the implications of these findings when eating habits and the metabolism of food are concerned, particularly in night workers, are considered briefly.     

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the prebiotic activity of water-soluble blueberry extracts

The prebiotic effects of water extracts of two blueberry (BBE) cultivars (‘Centurion’ and ‘Maru’) were studied using pure and mixed cultures of human faecal bacteria. The results demonstrated for the first time that addition of BBE from both cultivars to broth media containing pure cultures of Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium breve resulted in a significant increase (P < 0.05–0.0001) in the population size of these strains. Batch fermentation system was used to monitor the effect of BBE addition on the mixed faecal bacterial populations (obtained from healthy human donors). Addition of BBE from both cultivars to batch cultures inoculated with mixed human faecal cultures resulted in a significant increase in the number of lactobacilli (P < 0.01–0.0001) and bifidobacteria (P < 0.05–0.0001). Furthermore, a significant influence on the population size of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria was observed after administration of extracts from both cultivars to rats daily for 6 days in comparison with the control group. In rats gavaged orally with 4 ml kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ of BBE for 6 days, the population size of lactobacilli (P < 0.05) and bifidobacteria (P < 0.05–0.01) was increased significantly. We hypothesize that BBE could modify the bacterial profile by increasing the numbers of beneficial bacteria and thereby improving gut health.     

The Impact of Food Viscosity on Eating Rate,Subjective Appetite,Glycemic Response and Gastric Emptying Rate

Understanding the impact of rheological properties of food on postprandial appetite and glycemic response helps to design novel functional products. It has been shown that solid foods have a stronger satiating effect than their liquid equivalent. However, whether a subtle change in viscosity of a semi-solid food would have a similar effect on appetite is unknown. Fifteen healthy males participated in the randomized cross-over study. Each participant consumed a 1690 kJ portion of a standard viscosity (SV) and a high viscosity (HV) semi-solid meal with 1000 mg acetaminophen in two separate sessions. At regular intervals during the three hours following the meal, subjective appetite ratings were measured and blood samples collected. The plasma samples were assayed for insulin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP), glucose and acetaminophen. After three hours, the participants were provided with an ad libitum pasta meal. Compared with the SV meal, HV was consumed at a slower eating rate (P = 0.020), with postprandial hunger and desire to eat being lower (P = 0.019 and P<0.001 respectively) while fullness was higher (P<0.001). In addition, consuming the HV resulted in lower plasma concentration of GIP (P<0.001), higher plasma concentration of glucose (P<0.001) and delayed gastric emptying as revealed by the acetaminophen absorption test (P<0.001). However, there was no effect of food viscosity on insulin or food intake at the subsequent meal. In conclusion, increasing the viscosity of a semi-solid food modulates glycemic response and suppresses postprandial satiety, although the effect may be short-lived. A slower eating rate and a delayed gastric emptying rate can partly explain for the stronger satiating properties of high viscous semi-solid foods.     

Characterization and Antioxidant Property of Probiotic and Synbiotic Yogurts

The effect of a prebiotic (fructooligosaccharides) or a synbiotic components (prebiotic and probiotic) on the viability, proteolysis and antioxidant properties of probiotic and synbiotic yogurt during 28?days of storage at 4?°C has been investigated. Yogurt starters in conjunction with either probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum CFR 2194, Lactobacillus fermentum CFR 2192 and/or fructooligosaccharides (FOS) were used for yogurt preparation. Titratable acidity and pH of all yogurt samples followed a similar pattern of increase or decrease during storage. Proteolysis in synbiotic yogurts was found to be significantly (P?<?0.05) higher in comparison with that of control. The addition of prebiotics had no effect (P?=?0.17888) on the viability of yogurt starters during cold storage. No observable changes in the viability of probiotic cultures in probiotic groups. However, supplementation of FOS affected the growth significantly (P?<?0.05) in promoting the growth of L. plantarum and L. fermentum. Antioxidant activities, the index of nutritional value of yogurt, were monitored. Results showed that the DPPH-radical-scavenging activity (85?%) in synbiotic yogurt containing L. plantarum and FOS was significantly higher (P?<?0.05) in comparison with that of control yogurt (72?%). Total phenolics and the ferric reducing power were highest in synbiotic yogurts in comparison with that of other test samples during the entire period of storage. Addition of selected probiotics with FOS thus resulted in an improved functionality of yogurt.     

Brain activity in hunger and satiety: an exploratory visually stimulated FMRI study

Objective: To explore neuroanatomical sites of eating behavior, we have developed a simple functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm to image hunger vs. satiety using visual stimulation. Methods and Procedures: Twelve healthy, lean, nonsmoking male subjects participated in this study. Pairs of food‐neutral and food‐related pictures were presented in a block design, after a 14‐h fast and 1 h after ad libitum ingestion of a mixed meal. Statistically, a general linear model for serially autocorrelated observations with a P level <0.001 was used. Results: During the hunger condition, significantly enhanced brain activity was found in the left striate and extrastriate cortex, the inferior parietal lobe, and the orbitofrontal cortices. Stimulation with food images was associated with increased activity in both insulae, the left striate and extrastriate cortex, and the anterior midprefrontal cortex. Nonfood images were associated with enhanced activity in the right parietal lobe and the left and right middle temporal gyrus. A significant interaction in activation pattern between the states of hunger and satiety and stimulation with food and nonfood images was found for the left anterior cingulate cortex, the superior occipital sulcus, and in the vicinity of the right amygdala. Discussion: These preliminary data from a homogenous healthy male cohort suggest that central nervous system (CNS) activation is not only altered with hunger and satiety but that food and nonfood images have also specific effects on regional brain activity if exposure takes place in different states of satiety. Wider use of our or a similar approach would help to establish a uniform paradigm to map hunger and satiety to be used for further experiments.     

The individual and combined effects of glycemic index and protein on glycemic response, hunger, and energy intake

Although high protein and low glycemic index (GI) foods are thought to promote satiety, little is known about the effects of GI, protein, and their interaction on hunger and energy intake several hours following a mixed meal. This study investigated the long term effects of GI, protein, and their combined effects on glucose, insulin, hunger, and energy intake in healthy, sedentary, overweight, and obese adults (BMI of 30.9 ± 3.7 kg/m²). Sixteen individuals participated separately in four testing sessions after an overnight fast. The majority (75%) were non‐Hispanic Blacks. Each consumed one of four breakfast meals (high GI/low protein, high GI/high protein, low GI/low protein, low GI/high protein) in random order. Visual analog scales (VAS) and blood samples were taken at baseline, 15 min, and at 30 min intervals over 4 h following the meal. After 4 h, participants were given the opportunity to consume food ad libitum from a buffet style lunch. Meals containing low GI foods produced a smaller glucose (P < 0.002) and insulin (P = 0.0001) response than meals containing high GI foods. No main effects for protein or interactions between GI and protein were observed in glucose or insulin responses, respectively. The four meals had no differential effect on observed energy intake or self‐reported hunger, satiety, and prospective energy intake. Low GI meals produced the smallest postprandial increases in glucose and insulin. There were no effects for GI, protein, or their interaction on appetite or energy intake 4 h after breakfast.     

Impact of BTG2 expression on proliferation and invasion of gastric cancer cells in vitro

BTG2 (B cell translocation gene 2) is downregulated in several human tumors and has been known as a tumor suppressor in carcinogenesis of thymus, prostate, kidney, and liver. However, little is known about the role BTG2 plays in gastric adenocarcinoma. In the present study, we intended to investigate the influence of BTG2 on the growth, proliferation, apoptosis, invasion and cell cycle of the gastric cancer cell lines SGC7901 and MKN45. BTG2 cDNA was insected into a constitutive vector pcDNA3.1 followed by transfection in gastric cancer cell line MKN45 and SGC7901 by using liposome. Then stable transfectants were selected and appraised. The apoptosis and cell cycles of these transfectants were analyzed by using flow cytometric assay. The growth and proliferation were analyzed by cell growth curves and colony-forming assay, respectively. The invasion of these clones was analyzed by using cell migration assay. MKN-BTG2 (MKN45 with stable transfection of BTG2 gene) and SGC-BTG2 (SGC7901 with stable transfection of BTG2 gene) grew slower than their control groups, respectively. The cell counts of MKN-BTG2 in the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh days were significantly fewer than those of control groups (P < 0.05). Those of SGC-BTG2 in the fourth fifth, sixth and seventh days were significantly fewer than those of control groups too (P < 0.05). Cell cycle analysis showed that proportions of MKN-BTG2 and SGC-BTG2 cells in G0–G1 and S were different significantly with those of their control groups, respectively (P < 0.05). The apoptosis rate of MKN-BTG2 was significantly higher than those of control groups (P < 0.05). Results of colony-forming assay showed that the colon formation rates of MKN-BTG2 and SGC-BTG2 were lower than those of their control groups (P < 0.05). The results of cell migration assay showed that the cell migration rates of MKN-BTG2 and SGC-BTG2 were not significantly different with those of their control groups (P > 0.05). BTG2 can restrain the growth and proliferation of gastric cancer cells powerfully. It can reduce some malignant phenotype of these tumor cells. But it could not impact the ability of invasion of gastric cancer cells, so could not restrain the metastasis of gastric cancer. In gastric cancer, BTG2 could be thought as a tumor-inhibiting gene in some distance, so the gene could be a potential target of gene therapy.