泛素链的形成机理

泛素化是真核细胞中重要的蛋白质翻译后修饰过程,通过靶向蛋白质降解或其他信号途径参与多种细胞功能.底物蛋白的多聚泛素化修饰是一个持续的过程,其中不仅涉及复杂泛素系统相关酶的参与,而且存在更为复杂的结构上相互作用与泛素链组装机理.不同的泛素链修饰决定了底物蛋白下游的不同命运,泛素结合酶E2在泛素链形成中的重要作用受到越来越多的关注.对泛素链形成机理的深入研究与认识有利于发现与泛素系统相关的疾病靶点和利用泛素化调控方法进行治疗.本综述总结了E2和E3如何决定不同泛素链形成的机制和相关的结构信息,以及两种不同的泛素链组装机制.     

泛素化和SUMO化对DEC1的拮抗调控作用

分化的胚软骨表达蛋白1(differentiated embryo-chondrocyte expressed gene 1,DEC1)作为一种时钟蛋白,除了在周期节律的调控中发挥转录抑制作用外,还在能量代谢以及多种肿瘤相关的信号通路的调控中发挥重要作用。此外,蛋白质的翻译后修饰是实现蛋白质功能精细调控的一种重要方式。目前发现,DEC1主要可被两种翻译后修饰,即泛素化和SUMO化修饰。尽管泛素化和SUMO化是两种过程非常类似的蛋白质翻译后修饰方式,但是它们对目的蛋白功能的调控却截然不同。由于泛素化和SUMO化与底物的作用靶点都是赖氨酸(Lys),因此在多数情况下,泛素化和SUMO化以拮抗性的方式调控底物蛋白的功能。鉴于此,该文旨在阐述泛素化和SUMO化修饰对DEC1功能的拮抗调节过程,为了解时钟蛋白DEC1对多种信号通路的调控过程中的分子机制提供新的思路。     

泛素链水解酶的选择性和产生机制

底物蛋白的多聚泛素链修饰参与调节多种生命运动过程(包括蛋白质降解、自噬、DNA损伤修复、细胞周期、信号转导、基因表达、转录调节、炎症免疫等).去泛素化酶通过水解底物蛋白的单泛素和泛素链修饰,对泛素相关过程进行反向调节.人类基因组中约含90余种去泛素化酶,它们通过对自身酶活性和底物识别特异性的调节,实现了对细胞内复杂泛素过程的精密且层次性的调控.本文针对去泛素化酶对不同泛素链的识别选择性,综述目前已知泛素链水解酶的选择性和产生机制.     

泛素、泛素链和蛋白质泛素化研究进展

蛋白质泛素化是以泛素单体和泛素链作为信号分子,共价修饰细胞内其他蛋白质的一种翻译后修饰形式。不同蛋白质底物、同一底物的不同氨基酸修饰位点以及同一位点上泛素链连接方式的不同均可导致细胞效应的差异。蛋白质泛素化在真核细胞内广泛存在,除了介导蛋白质的26S蛋白酶体降解途径之外,还广泛参与了基因转录、蛋白质翻译、信号传导、细胞周期控制以及生长发育等几乎所有的生命活动过程。泛素链的形成及其修饰过程的任何失调均可导致生物体内环境的紊乱,从而产生严重的疾病。文中结合实验室研究,综述了泛素的发现历史、基因特点、晶体结构,特别是泛素链的组装过程、结构、功能以及与人类相关疾病关系的新进展,可为这些疾病的治疗靶点和药物靶标的研究提供思路。     

蛋白质泛素化修饰的生物信息学研究进展

泛素-蛋白酶体系统(Ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS)介导了真核生物80%~85%的蛋白质降解, 该蛋白质降解途径具有依赖ATP、高效、高度选择性的特点。除参与蛋白质降解之外, 泛素化修饰还可以直接影响蛋白质的活性和定位。由于泛素化修饰底物蛋白在细胞中的广泛存在, 泛素化修饰可以调控包括细胞周期、细胞凋亡、转录调控、DNA损伤修复以及免疫应答等在内的多种细胞活动。近年来, 泛素-蛋白酶体系统相关的蛋白质组学数据不断产出, 有效地管理、组织并合理分析这些数据显得尤为必要。文章综述了当前世界范围内针对蛋白质泛素化修饰展开的生物信息学研究, 总结了前人的工作结果, 包括UPS相关蛋白质数据的收录、泛素化修饰网络的构建和分析、泛素化修饰位点的预测及泛素化修饰motif的研究等方面内容, 并对该领域未来的发展方向进行了讨论。     

O-GlcNAc修饰对蛋白质泛素化降解途径的影响

O-GlcNAc修饰是一种特殊的糖基化修饰,几乎参与生物体内所有细胞过程的调控。该修饰与泛素化作为两种重要的蛋白质翻译后修饰形式,都与2型糖尿病、神经退行性疾病、癌症等疾病密切相关。O-GlcNAc修饰对蛋白质泛素化降解途径的影响主要体现在4个方面:(1)O-GlcNAc修饰能够抑制26S蛋白酶体的ATPase活性;(2)O-GlcNAc修饰会减少某些底物蛋白的泛素化降解;(3)O-GlcNAc修饰泛素化相关酶并调节其功能;(4)某些蛋白质(包括调控因子)发生O-GlcNAc修饰后间接影响蛋白质泛素化。     

泛素化修饰调控脱落酸介导的信号途径

泛素化修饰是一种重要的蛋白质翻译后修饰,通过调节蛋白的活性和稳定性等影响其功能的发挥,在真核生物的生命过程中具有非常重要的作用。泛素化修饰通过精细地调控植物激素脱落酸(abscisic acid, ABA)的合成和信号转导过程的关键因子,影响植物对ABA的响应,参与植物生长发育过程及对干旱、盐和冷胁迫等不良环境的应答。本文概述了植物中泛素化修饰的相关组分(包括泛素连接酶E3、泛素结合酶E2、26S蛋白酶体)和内膜运输相关蛋白,以及这些蛋白调控ABA合成和信号转导过程的最新研究进展,提出该研究领域需要解决的新问题,以期为相关领域的科研人员进一步了解翻译后修饰如何调控激素信号的转导途径提供参考。     

泛素化和磷酸化协同作用调控蛋白质降解

在真核细胞中,泛素化和磷酸化是2种常见的蛋白质修饰方式。泛素在蛋白酶体降解途径中发挥重要的靶向作用,细胞外信号严格调控着目的蛋白的泛素化。在很多情况下,这种调控依赖于蛋白质的磷酸化。由磷酸化影响的调控步骤可能与E3泛素连接酶对底物的识别有关,也可能与实际的交联反应有关。这种调控是通过对底物或E3连接酶本身的磷酸化实现的。     

泛素连接酶-底物选择关系的研究进展

泛素是一种包含76个氨基酸的小分子蛋白。泛素共价结合到底物的过程称为泛素化修饰。泛素化修饰过程是一个由级联的泛素激活酶、泛素结合酶和泛素连接酶所介导的复杂过程,泛素化修饰具有高效、ATP依赖、高度特异的特点。泛素化修饰与细胞周期调控、细胞凋亡、转录调控、DNA损伤修复等一系列生物学过程密切相关。在泛素化修饰过程中,泛素连接酶对底物的识别,是决定泛素化修饰特异性的关键环节。泛素连接酶底物识别的相关机制研究不断被报道,鉴定泛素连接酶底物的高通量方法也在不断的改进和发展。随着实验研究的不断深入,实验数据的不断产出,利用生物信息学进行泛素连接酶底物的研究也开始受到关注。对泛素连接酶识别底物的相关机制、高通量泛素连接酶底物的鉴定方法、泛素连接酶底物的生物信息学研究和生物信息学在泛素连接酶底物研究中的发展方向进行讨论。     

定量蛋白质组学揭示酵母去泛素化酶Ubp14生物学功能

泛素化是一种动态可逆的蛋白质翻译后修饰,泛素分子在泛素激活酶、泛素结合酶和泛素连接酶的级联酶促反应催化下共价连接到底物蛋白上。去泛素化酶将泛素分子从底物上移除,动态可逆地调控泛素化修饰,在成熟泛素的生成、泛素链的移除与修剪、游离泛素链的回收等过程中发挥着关键的调控作用。本文的研究对象是酵母中泛素特异性蛋白酶（ubiquitin specific protease,USP）家族成员Ubp14,负责回收细胞内游离的泛素链。本研究定量比较了酵母细胞中Ubp14缺失对全蛋白质组的影响,进而找出其潜在的调控通路和分子功能。首先,通过同源重组技术构建了ubp14Δ菌株,发现其生长速度低于野生型酵母。利用稳定同位素氨基酸代谢标记技术结合深度覆盖的蛋白质组学分析技术,系统比较了ubp14Δ菌株相对于野生型菌株的差异蛋白,共计鉴定3 685个蛋白,通过统计学分析筛选得到109个差异蛋白。基因本体论分析发现,Ubp14缺失引起的差异蛋白主要参与了包括氨基酸代谢、氧化还原和热应激等生物学过程。本研究为深入探究去泛素化酶Ubp14的生物学功能,进而深刻理解游离泛素的稳态平衡与生物学过程调控提供了高可信的蛋白质组学数据信息。     

Ubiquitin modifications

Protein ubiquitination is a dynamic multifaceted post-translational modification involved in nearly all aspects of eukaryotic biology. Once attached to a substrate, the 76-amino acid protein ubiquitin is subjected to further modifications, creating a multitude of distinct signals with distinct cellular outcomes, referred to as the ''ubiquitin code''. Ubiquitin can be ubiquitinated on seven lysine (Lys) residues or on the N-terminus, leading to polyubiquitin chains that can encompass complex topologies. Alternatively or in addition, ubiquitin Lys residues can be modified by ubiquitin-like molecules (such as SUMO or NEDD8). Finally, ubiquitin can also be acetylated on Lys, or phosphorylated on Ser, Thr or Tyr residues, and each modification has the potential to dramatically alter the signaling outcome. While the number of distinctly modified ubiquitin species in cells is mind-boggling, much progress has been made to characterize the roles of distinct ubiquitin modifications, and many enzymes and receptors have been identified that create, recognize or remove these ubiquitin modifications. We here provide an overview of the various ubiquitin modifications present in cells, and highlight recent progress on ubiquitin chain biology. We then discuss the recent findings in the field of ubiquitin acetylation and phosphorylation, with a focus on Ser65-phosphorylation and its role in mitophagy and Parkin activation.     

泛素链的体外制备、磷酸化修饰与标记方法

目的 为了制备不同链种类、不同链长及磷酸化修饰的泛素样品。方法 本文主要以生物酶法为手段对以上样品的制备路线进行阐述。制备的主要方法分为两种,一是采用逐次添加的方式达到泛素链延长的目的,二是通过一次酶反应制备混合的多聚泛素链,然后对不同链长的泛素链进行纯化分离。结果 以上两种策略都能达到制备多聚泛素链的目的。进一步,通过对泛素进行磷酸化修饰,制备了磷酸化的泛素样品。通过K11和K48的泛素酶制备了K11/K48分支链泛素。结论 基于以上泛素链的制备路线,可以进一步对不同链接形式的不同亚基进行磷酸化修饰等翻译后修饰,也可以通过在特定亚基进行同位素标记及在特定位点引入小分子探针,进而进行NMR和FRET的测定。综上所述,本方法将为从事泛素信号通路和泛素生化研究的科学家提供借鉴和帮助。     

Ubiquitin acetylation inhibits polyubiquitin chain elongation

Ubiquitylation is a versatile post-translational modification (PTM). The diversity of ubiquitylation topologies, which encompasses different chain lengths and linkages, underlies its widespread cellular roles. Here, we show that endogenous ubiquitin is acetylated at lysine (K)-6 (AcK6) or K48. Acetylated ubiquitin does not affect substrate monoubiquitylation, but inhibits K11-, K48-, and K63-linked polyubiquitin chain elongation by several E2 enzymes in vitro. In cells, AcK6-mimetic ubiquitin stabilizes the monoubiquitylation of histone H2B—which we identify as an endogenous substrate of acetylated ubiquitin—and of artificial ubiquitin fusion degradation substrates. These results characterize a mechanism whereby ubiquitin, itself a PTM, is subject to another PTM to modulate mono- and polyubiquitylation, thus adding a new regulatory layer to ubiquitin biology.     

An invisible ubiquitin conformation is required for efficient phosphorylation by PINK1

The Ser/Thr protein kinase PINK1 phosphorylates the well‐folded, globular protein ubiquitin (Ub) at a relatively protected site, Ser65. We previously showed that Ser65 phosphorylation results in a conformational change in which Ub adopts a dynamic equilibrium between the known, common Ub conformation and a distinct, second conformation wherein the last β‐strand is retracted to extend the Ser65 loop and shorten the C‐terminal tail. We show using chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) nuclear magnetic resonance experiments that a similar, C‐terminally retracted (Ub‐CR) conformation also exists at low population in wild‐type Ub. Point mutations in the moving β5 and neighbouring β‐strands shift the Ub/Ub‐CR equilibrium. This enabled functional studies of the two states, and we show that while the Ub‐CR conformation is defective for conjugation, it demonstrates improved binding to PINK1 through its extended Ser65 loop, and is a superior PINK1 substrate. Together our data suggest that PINK1 utilises a lowly populated yet more suitable Ub‐CR conformation of Ub for efficient phosphorylation. Our findings could be relevant for many kinases that phosphorylate residues in folded protein domains.     

Atypical ubiquitylation - the unexplored world of polyubiquitin beyond Lys48 and Lys63 linkages

Ubiquitylation is one of the most abundant and versatile post-translational modifications (PTMs) in cells. Its versatility arises from the ability of ubiquitin to form eight structurally and functionally distinct polymers, in which ubiquitin moieties are linked via one of seven Lys residues or the amino terminus. Whereas the roles of Lys48- and Lys63-linked polyubiquitin in protein degradation and cellular signalling are well characterized, the functions of the remaining six 'atypical' ubiquitin chain types (linked via Lys6, Lys11, Lys27, Lys29, Lys33 and Met1) are less well defined. Recent developments provide insights into the mechanisms of ubiquitin chain assembly, recognition and hydrolysis and allow detailed analysis of the functions of atypical ubiquitin chains. The importance of Lys11 linkages and Met1 linkages in cell cycle regulation and nuclear factor-κB activation, respectively, highlight that the different ubiquitin chain types should be considered as functionally independent PTMs.     

Ubiquitin Ser65 phosphorylation affects ubiquitin structure,chain assembly and hydrolysis

The protein kinase PINK1 was recently shown to phosphorylate ubiquitin (Ub) on Ser65, and phosphoUb activates the E3 ligase Parkin allosterically. Here, we show that PINK1 can phosphorylate every Ub in Ub chains. Moreover, Ser65 phosphorylation alters Ub structure, generating two conformations in solution. A crystal structure of the major conformation resembles Ub but has altered surface properties. NMR reveals a second phosphoUb conformation in which β5-strand slippage retracts the C-terminal tail by two residues into the Ub core. We further show that phosphoUb has no effect on E1-mediated E2 charging but can affect discharging of E2 enzymes to form polyUb chains. Notably, UBE2R1- (CDC34), UBE2N/UBE2V1- (UBC13/UEV1A), TRAF6- and HOIP-mediated chain assembly is inhibited by phosphoUb. While Lys63-linked poly-phosphoUb is recognized by the TAB2 NZF Ub binding domain (UBD), 10 out of 12 deubiquitinases (DUBs), including USP8, USP15 and USP30, are impaired in hydrolyzing phosphoUb chains. Hence, Ub phosphorylation has repercussions for ubiquitination and deubiquitination cascades beyond Parkin activation and may provide an independent layer of regulation in the Ub system.     

Regulation of the AMPK-related protein kinases by ubiquitination

How can a constitutively active 'master' kinase with numerous downstream targets preferentially phosphorylate one or more of these without influencing all simultaneously? How might such a system be switched off? The characterization of the role of deubiquitination in regulating the phosphorylation and activation of AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase)-related kinases by LKB1 suggests a novel and interesting mechanism for conferring signal transduction specificity and control at the kinase substrate level. In this issue of the Biochemical Journal, Al-Hakim et al. show that the AMPK-related kinases NUAK1 (AMPK-related kinase 5) and MARK4 (microtubule-affinity-regulating kinase 4) are polyubiquitinated in vivo and that they serve as substrates of the deubiquitinating enzyme USP9X; furthermore, the first evidence is provided for regulation of AMPK-related kinase family members mediated via unusual Lys(29)/Lys(33) polyubiquitin chains, rather than the more common Lys(48)/Lys(63) linkages.     

Ubiquitylation is required for degradation of transmembrane surface proteins in trypanosomes

The surface of Trypanosoma brucei is dominated by glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins, and endocytosis is clathrin dependent. The vast majority of internalized GPI-anchored protein is efficiently recycled, while the processes by which transmembrane domain (TMD) proteins are internalized and sorted are unknown. We demonstrate that internalization of invariant surface glycoprotein (ISG)65, a trypanosome TMD protein, involves ubiquitylation and also requires clathrin. We find a hierarchical requirement for cytoplasmic lysine residues in internalization and turnover, and a single position-specific lysine is sufficient for degradation, surface removal and attachment of oligoubiquitin chains. Ubiquitylation is context dependent as provision of additional lysine residues by C-terminal fusion of neuronal precursor cell-expressed developmentally downregulated protein (NEDD)8 fails to support ubiquitylation. Attachment of NEDD8 leads to degradation by a second ubiquitin-independent pathway. Moreover, degradation of ubiquitylated or NEDDylated substrate takes place in an acidic compartment and is proteosome independent. Significantly, in non-opisthokont lineages, Rsp5p or c-Cbl, the E3 ubiquitin ligases acting on endocytic cargo, are absent but Uba1 class genes are present and are required for cell viability and ISG65 ubiquitylation. Hence, ubiquitylation is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for internalization of surface proteins, but aspects of the machinery differ substantially between the major eukaryotic lineages.     

Phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Ser65 affects its polymerization,targets, and proteome‐wide turnover

Ubiquitylation is an essential post‐translational modification that regulates numerous cellular processes, most notably protein degradation. Ubiquitin can itself be phosphorylated at nearly every serine, threonine, and tyrosine residue. However, the effect of this modification on ubiquitin function is largely unknown. Here, we characterized the effects of phosphorylation of yeast ubiquitin at serine 65 in vivo and in vitro. We find this post‐translational modification to be regulated under oxidative stress, occurring concomitantly with the restructuring of the ubiquitin landscape into a highly polymeric state. Phosphomimetic mutation of S65 recapitulates the oxidative stress phenotype, causing a dramatic accumulation of ubiquitylated proteins and a proteome‐wide reduction of protein turnover rates. Importantly, this mutation impacts ubiquitin chain disassembly, chain linkage distribution, ubiquitin interactions, and substrate targeting. These results demonstrate that phosphorylation is an additional mode of ubiquitin regulation with broad implications in cellular physiology.     

Importance of autophosphorylation at Ser186 in the A-loop of salt inducible kinase 1 for its sustained kinase activity

Autophosphorylation is an important mechanism by which protein kinases regulate their own biological activities. Salt inducible kinase 1 (SIK1) is a regulator in the feedback cascades of cAMP-mediated gene expression, while its kinase domain also features autophosphorylation activity. We provide evidence that Ser186 in the activation loop is the site of autophosphorylation and essential for the kinase activity. Ser186 is located at the +4 position of the critical Thr residue Thr182, which is phosphorylated by upstream kinases such as LKB1. The relationship between phosphorylation at Ser186 and at Thr182 in COS-7 cells indicates that the former is a prerequisite for the latter. Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) phosphorylates Ser/Thr residues located at the fourth position ahead of the pre-phosphorylated Ser/Thr residues, and inhibitors of GSK-3beta reduce the phosphorylation at Thr182. The results of an in vitro reconstitution assay also indicate that GSK-3beta could be the SIK1 kinase. However, overexpression and knockdown of GSK-3beta in LKB1-defective HeLa cells suggests that GSK-3beta alone may not be able to phosphorylate or activate SIK1, indicating that LKB1 may play a crucial role by phosphorylating SIK1 at Thr182, possibly as an initiator of the autophosphorylation cascade, and GSK-3beta may phosphorylate SIK1 at Thr182 by recognizing the priming-autophosphorylation at Ser186 in cultured cells. This may also be the case for the other isoform SIK2, but not for SIK3.