受体相互作用蛋白3——细胞凋亡与坏死的调节阀

综述了受体相互作用蛋白(RIPs)蛋白结构和RIP3调控细胞凋亡与坏死机制的研究进展．受体相互作用蛋白3(receptor-interacting protein 3, RIP3)是丝/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族成员之一,该蛋白质家族包含一类高度保守的丝/苏氨酸激酶结构域．RIP家族激酶作为细胞应激传感分子,在调控细胞凋亡、细胞坏死和存活通路中发挥重要作用．近年发现,RIP3参与肿瘤坏死因子TNFα诱导的细胞程序化坏死的生物学过程．认识RIP3调控TNFα诱导的细胞凋亡与坏死不同死亡途径转换的分子机制,有助于发现肿瘤治疗的新策略．     

CO2浓度对棉铃虫及其天敌种间关系的影响

肿瘤坏死因子TNF-α是一个多效性细胞因子,参与调节炎症反应、细胞凋亡和坏死等,一项新研究显示蛋白激酶RIP3是决定TNF-α诱导的细胞坏死的关键蛋白。在受到坏死信号刺激时,一个包含有RIP3和激酶RIPK1的蛋白复合体会被诱导形成。过量表达的RIP3激酶死亡突变体与内源性RIPK1相结合,从而抑制细胞坏死途径。RIP3只在一些细胞中选择性表达,     

混合系激酶区域样蛋白的研究进展

程序性坏死是近年来发现的一种由死亡受体介导的caspases非依赖性细胞死亡模式,通常在凋亡被抑制的情况下发生,具有坏死细胞的形态学特征。受体相互作用蛋白(receptor interacting protein,RIP)1和3是程序性坏死信号通路中极为重要的调节蛋白。MLKL作为RIP1/RIP3的下游调控物质,已被证明在TNF诱导的程序性坏死下游通路中起着重要作用。本文就MLKL的发现、生理功能及其分子机制进行综述。     

RIP1介导肿瘤坏死因子α诱导的L929细胞凋亡与程序性坏死

肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor alpha,TNFα)诱导的L929细胞死亡是研究细胞程序性坏死的重要模型,但也有报道称,TNFα处理后的L929细胞发生了凋亡。该研究以所在实验室保存的L929细胞(L929-A)和从商业化细胞库购买的L929细胞(L929-N)为模型,进一步鉴定了TNFα诱导的L929细胞死亡类型与调控机制。结果发现,TNFα处理后的L929-A细胞中出现了凋亡特征,且阻断胱冬肽酶(caspase)信号通路可显著抑制TNFα诱导的L929-A细胞死亡,但却促进TNFα诱导的L929-N细胞死亡。此外,受体相互作用蛋白1(receptor-interacting protein 1,RIP1)在TNFα诱导的两种L929细胞死亡过程中都具有关键性的调控作用,表明TNFα处理后的L929-A细胞发生了RIP1依赖的细胞凋亡,而L929-N细胞发生了程序性坏死(necroptosis)。同时,启动细胞程序性坏死的关键蛋白RIP3(receptor-interacting protein 3)在L929-N细胞中表达水平显著高于L929-A细胞,因此,RIP3的这种差异表达可能是决定两种L929细胞在TNFα处理后发生不同类型细胞程序性死亡的重要原因。     

程序性细胞坏死的分子机制及其在炎症中的作用

越来越多的研究表明,细胞坏死是一种受到精密调控的"新型"程序性细胞死亡方式。当细胞凋亡不能正常发生而细胞必须死亡时,坏死作为凋亡的"替补"方式被激活。程序性细胞坏死主要由肿瘤坏死因子受体(tumor necrosis factor receptor,TNFR)家族以及Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor,TLR)家族启动,并通过和受体蛋白互作的两个蛋白激酶RIP1(receptor interacting protein kinase 1)和RIP3(receptor interacting protein kinase 3)传递死亡信号,募集并磷酸化MLKL(mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein),而MLKL作为细胞死亡的执行者最终会导致坏死的发生。坏死的细胞会向周围释放其内容物,这些内容物作为DAMPs(damage-associated molecular pattern molecules)可刺激周围细胞发生炎症反应,激活机体免疫应答。该文以TNF-α诱导的细胞坏死途径为出发点,着重阐述程序性细胞坏死的分子机制及其在炎症中的作用,并回顾和展望了其在临床诊疗中的可能性。     

TNF-α信号传导通路的分子机理

肿瘤坏死因子α（tumor necrosis factor-alpha,TNF-α）是一种具有多效生物学效应的细胞因子.TNF的生物学效应都是通过细胞表面的2种TNF受体（TNFR）引发,其信号传导通路主要包括caspase家族介导的细胞凋亡、衔接蛋白TRAF介导的转录因子NF-κB和JNK蛋白激酶的活化.TNFR1和TNFR2的生物学功能不是独立的,许多生物学活性由二者共同完成.3条信号传导通路之间及各通路内部含有各种调节机制,使TNF的各种生物学功能协调发挥出来.本文评述了3条信号传导通路最新进展、关键激酶的研究状况及其在整个信号网络中的作用机理,如IKK的激活以及重要的信号转导分子RIP、TRAF2、TRUSS的结构、相互作用的方式等     

TNF受体家族介导的细胞凋亡信号转导

肿瘤坏死因子（TNF）家族是一类多功能的细胞因子,具有诱导细胞凋亡、抗病毒、免疫调节等多种生物学活性.其中一些成员可以通过和细胞膜上相应受体（即TNF受体家族成员）结合,启动细胞内的凋亡机制,而诱导细胞凋亡.一些蛋白质（如TRADD、FADD、RIP、RAIDD等）参与这些信号传递过程.越来越多的TNF家族成员、TNF受体以及与细胞凋亡相关的Caspase蛋白酶家族成员被人们发现.     

利用单分子荧光成像技术研究十字孢碱诱导细胞凋亡过程中糖原合成酶激酶-3β促进Bax转位

糖原合成酶激酶-3β (glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)除了在抑制糖原合成中的重要作用外,越来越多的研究表明它是细胞凋亡过程中的一个关键信号调节蛋白.然而,在细胞凋亡过程中它调节的主要下游促凋亡蛋白依然不明确,尤其是Bcl-2家族的促凋亡蛋白(Bax是其中最重要的蛋白之一).通过对GSK-3β和Bax两种蛋白进行荧光标记,在单分子水平上研究了十字孢碱(staurosperine,STS)诱导人肺腺癌细胞(ASTC-α-1)凋亡过程中,GSK-3β活化与Bax转位之间的关系.实验结果表明STS诱导ASTC-α-1凋亡过程中,共转染pCFP-Bax和 pYFP-GSK-3β的细胞发生凋亡的时间明显早于单转染 pYFP-Bax的细胞,并且Bax发牛转位的时间也明显提前.这些结果显示在STS这种凋亡因素刺激下,GSK-3β可以通过促进Bax转位从而加速细胞凋亡.这是单分子荧光成像技术研究活细胞内分子事件的又一个重要应用.     

肿瘤坏死因子α诱导蛋白8的生物学效应及其临床价值北大核心CSCD

肿瘤坏死因子α诱导蛋白8(tumor necrosis factor alpha induced protein-8,TNFAIP8)作为TNFAIP8家族的成员之一,被认为是一种具有抗凋亡和促肿瘤效应的蛋白分子,在细胞的存活和死亡中发挥重要作用。本文重点介绍TNFAIP8的发现过程、结构功能、生物学效应及其临床意义,并对其可能的作用机制进行概述。     

肿瘤坏死因子α诱导蛋白8的生物学效应及其临床价值

肿瘤坏死因子α诱导蛋白8(tumor necrosis factor alpha induced protein-8,TNFAIP8)作为TNFAIP8家族的成员之一,被认为是一种具有抗凋亡和促肿瘤效应的蛋白分子,在细胞的存活和死亡中发挥重要作用。本文重点介绍TNFAIP8的发现过程、结构功能、生物学效应及其临床意义,并对其可能的作用机制进行概述。     

The serine threonine kinase RIP3: lost and found

Receptor-interacting protein kinase-3 (RIP3, or RIPK3) is an essential protein in the “programmed”, or “regulated” necrosis cell death pathway that is activated in response to death receptor ligands and other types of cellular stress. Programmed necrotic cell death is distinguished from its apoptotic counterpart in that it is not characterized by the activation of caspases; unlike apoptosis, programmed necrosis results in plasma membrane rupture, thus spilling the contents of the cell and triggering the activation of the immune system and inflammation. Here we discuss findings, including our own recent data, which show that RIP3 protein expression is absent in many cancer cell lines. The recent data suggests that the lack of RIP3 expression in a majority of these deficient cell lines is due to methylation-dependent silencing, which limits the responses of these cells to pro-necrotic stimuli. Importantly, RIP3 expression may be restored in many cancer cells through the use of hypomethylating agents, such as decitabine. The potential implications of loss of RIP3 expression in cancer are explored, along with possible consequences for chemotherapeutic response. [BMB Reports 2015; 48(6): 303-312]     

Toll-like Receptor 3-mediated Necrosis via TRIF,RIP3, and MLKL

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is triggered by pathogen-associated molecular patterns that mediate well established cytokine-driven pathways, activating NF-κB together with IRF3/IRF7. In addition, TLR3 drives caspase 8-regulated programmed cell death pathways reminiscent of TNF family death receptor signaling. We find that inhibition or elimination of caspase 8 during stimulation of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, or TLR9 results in receptor interacting protein (RIP) 3 kinase-dependent programmed necrosis that occurs through either TIR domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF) or MyD88 signal transduction. TLR3 or TLR4 directly activates programmed necrosis through a RIP homotypic interaction motif-dependent association of TRIF with RIP3 kinase (also called RIPK3). In fibroblasts, this pathway proceeds independent of RIP1 or its kinase activity, but it remains dependent on mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) downstream of RIP3 kinase. Here, we describe two small molecule RIP3 kinase inhibitors and employ them to demonstrate the common requirement for RIP3 kinase in programmed necrosis induced by RIP1-RIP3, DAI-RIP3, and TRIF-RIP3 complexes. Cell fate decisions following TLR signaling parallel death receptor signaling and rely on caspase 8 to suppress RIP3-dependent programmed necrosis whether initiated directly by a TRIF-RIP3-MLKL pathway or indirectly via TNF activation and the RIP1-RIP3-MLKL necroptosis pathway.     

受体相互作用蛋白质激酶3通过上调整合素β3促进骨关节炎相关病变

骨关节炎（osteoarthritis,OA）是最常见的慢性致残性关节疾患,目前尚无针对病因的有效治疗手段。程序性坏死在多种疾病中扮演关键角色,受体相互作用蛋白质激酶3（receptor-interacting protein kinase 3, RIP3）是程序性坏死进程的关键调控因子。有研究显示,RIP3在人与鼠骨关节炎退变软骨组织中表达水平显著上调,提示程序性坏死的发生,但RIP3在软骨中的具体病生理角色仍不明确。本研究拟对过表达RIP3前后的软骨细胞转录物组进行测序分析,探索RIP3在骨关节炎进程中发挥作用的具体机制。RNA测序结果显示,RIP3的过表达诱发软骨细胞中244个基因表达上调,277个表达下调。通过进一步构建基因间共表达作用网络,筛选出16个候选靶基因在mRNA水平进行验证,证实RIP3对磷脂酰肌醇3激酶调节亚单位5（phosphoinositide-3-kinase, regulatory subunit 5,Pik3r5）、整合素β3（integrin subunit beta 3,Itgb3）及成髓细胞瘤转录因子第2亚型（MYB proto-oncogene like 2,Mybl2）的表达上调作用最为显著。CCK-8以及乳酸脱氢酶活性检测结果表明,利用siRNA沉默Itgb3的表达可显著抑制RIP3诱发的软骨细胞活力下降及程序性坏死,同时也抑制了RIP3对软骨细胞中分解代谢相关基因Mmp1、Mmp13与Il6的表达上调作用,以及其对合成代谢相关基因Acan、Col2a1与Sox9的下调作用。本研究证实,RIP3通过上调软骨细胞中Itgb3的表达诱发软骨细胞坏死与软骨基质代谢紊乱,并最终导致软骨退变,为骨关节炎的临床治疗提供了新靶点,同时进一步明确了程序性坏死的病理生理学意义。     

Molecular cloning and in-depth bioinformatics analysis of type II ribosome-inactivating protein isolated from Sambucus ebulus

Plant ribosome–inactivating proteins (RIPs) are N–glycosidases which inhibit protein synthesis through depurination of the ribosomal RNA sequence. Type II RIPs are heterodimer proteins which can bind to cell surfaces. The cytotoxicity of these RIPs is different. Sambucus spp. are a rich source of RIP proteins with different properties. In the present study, a type II RIP was isolated from S. ebulus plant that grows widely in the north of Iran, and different bioinformatics tools were used for the evaluation of physicochemical, functional and 3D protein characteristics. The results showed significant differences among isolated RIP and other Sambucus RIP proteins. The study of these differences can not only expand our insight into the functioning mechanisms of plant RIPs but also provide information about a novel RIP protein with potential biological applications.     

Analysis of castor bean ribosome-inactivating proteins and their gene expression during seed development

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are enzymes that inhibit protein synthesis after depurination of a specific adenine in rRNA. The RIP family members are classified as type I RIPs that contain an RNA-N-glycosidase domain and type II RIPs that contain a lectin domain (B chain) in addition to the glycosidase domain (A chain). In this work, we identified 30 new plant RIPs and characterized 18 Ricinus communis RIPs. Phylogenetic and functional divergence analyses indicated that the emergence of type I and II RIPs probably occurred before the monocot/eudicot split. We also report the expression profiles of 18 castor bean genes, including those for ricin and agglutinin, in five seed stages as assessed by quantitative PCR. Ricin and agglutinin were the most expressed RIPs in developing seeds although eight other RIPs were also expressed. All of the RIP genes were most highly expressed in the stages in which the endosperm was fully expanded. Although the reason for the large expansion of RIP genes in castor beans remains to be established, the differential expression patterns of the type I and type II members reinforce the existence of biological functions other than defense against predators and herbivory.     

Solution Structure of an Active Mutant of Maize Ribosome-Inactivating Protein (MOD) and Its Interaction with the Ribosomal Stalk Protein P2

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are N-glycosidases that depurinate a specific adenine residue in the conserved sarcin/ricin loop of ribosomal RNA. This modification renders the ribosome unable to bind the elongation factors, thereby inhibiting the protein synthesis. Maize RIP, a type III RIP, is unique compared to the other type I and type II RIPs because it is synthesized as a precursor with a 25-residue internal inactivation region, which is removed in order to activate the protein. In this study, we describe the first solution structure of this type of RIP, a  28-kDa active mutant of maize RIP (MOD). The overall protein structure of MOD is comparable to those of the other type I RIPs and the A-chain of type II RIPs but shows significant differences in specific regions, including (1) shorter β6 and αB segments, probably for accommodating easier substrate binding, and (2) an α-helix instead of an antiparallel β-sheet in the C-terminal domain, which has been reported to be involved in binding ribosomal protein P2 in some RIPs. Furthermore, NMR chemical shift perturbation experiments revealed that the P2 binding site on MOD is located at the N-terminal domain near the internal inactivation region. This relocation of the P2 binding site can be rationalized by concerted changes in the electrostatic surface potential and 3D structures on the MOD protein and provides vital clues about the underlying molecular mechanism of this unique type of RIP.     

Sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis by the Maximum Likelihood method of ribosome-inactivating proteins from angiosperms

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) from angiosperms are rRNA N-glycosidases that have been proposed as defence proteins against virus and fungi. They have been classified as type 1 RIPs, consisting of single-chain proteins, and type 2 RIPs, consisting of an A chain with RIP properties covalently linked to a B chain with lectin properties. In this work we have carried out a broad search of RIP sequence data banks from angiosperms in order to study their main structural characteristics and phylogenetic evolution. The comparison of the sequences revealed the presence, outside of the active site, of a novel structure that might be involved in the internal protein dynamics linked to enzyme catalysis. Also the B-chains presented another conserved structure that might function either supporting the beta-trefoil structure or in the communication between both sugar-binding sites. A systematic phylogenetic analysis of RIP sequences revealed that the most primitive type 1 RIPs were similar to that of the actual monocots (Poaceae and Asparagaceae). The primitive RIPs evolved to the dicot type 1 related RIPs (like those from Caryophyllales, Lamiales and Euphorbiales). The gene of a type 1 RIP related with the actual Euphorbiaceae type 1 RIPs fused with a double beta trefoil lectin gene similar to the actual Cucurbitaceae lectins to generate the type 2 RIPs and finally this gene underwent deletions rendering either type 1 RIPs (like those from Cucurbitaceae, Rosaceae and Iridaceae) or lectins without A chain (like those from Adoxaceae).