Maximizing species conservation in continental Ecuador: a case of systematic conservation planning for biodiverse regions

Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide, but also a low representation of species within its protected areas. Here, we applied systematic conservation planning to identify potential areas for conservation in continental Ecuador, with the aim of increasing the representation of terrestrial species diversity in the protected area network. We selected 809 terrestrial species (amphibians, birds, mammals, and plants), for which distributions were estimated via species distribution models (SDMs), using Maxent. For each species we established conservation goals based on conservation priorities, and estimated new potential protected areas using Marxan conservation planning software. For each selected area, we determined their conservation priority and feasibility of establishment, two important aspects in the decision-making processes. We found that according to our conservation goals, the current protected area network contains large conservation gaps. Potential areas for conservation almost double the surface area of currently protected areas. Most of the newly proposed areas are located in the Coast, a region with large conservation gaps and irreversible changes in land use. The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions, which encompass more undisturbed habitats, and already harbor most of the current reserves. Our study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador''s biodiversity, by combining SDMs, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas. This approach is useful for complementing protected area networks in countries with great biodiversity, insufficient biological information, and limited resources for conservation.     

Incorporating phylogenetic information for the definition of floristic districts in hyperdiverse Amazon forests: Implications for conservation

Using complementary metrics to evaluate phylogenetic diversity can facilitate the delimitation of floristic units and conservation priority areas. In this study, we describe the spatial patterns of phylogenetic alpha and beta diversity, phylogenetic endemism, and evolutionary distinctiveness of the hyperdiverse Ecuador Amazon forests and define priority areas for conservation. We established a network of 62 one‐hectare plots in terra firme forests of Ecuadorian Amazon. In these plots, we tagged, collected, and identified every single adult tree with dbh ≥10 cm. These data were combined with a regional community phylogenetic tree to calculate different phylogenetic diversity (PD) metrics in order to create spatial models. We used Loess regression to estimate the spatial variation of taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity as well as phylogenetic endemism and evolutionary distinctiveness. We found evidence for the definition of three floristic districts in the Ecuadorian Amazon, supported by both taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity data. Areas with high levels of phylogenetic endemism and evolutionary distinctiveness in Ecuadorian Amazon forests are unprotected. Furthermore, these areas are severely threatened by proposed plans of oil and mining extraction at large scales and should be prioritized in conservation planning for this region.     

Conservation threats and future prospects for the freshwater fishes of Ecuador: A hotspot of Neotropical fish diversity

Freshwater fish communities in Ecuador exhibit some of the highest levels of diversity and endemism in the Neotropics. Unfortunately, aquatic ecosystems in the country are under serious threat and conditions are deteriorating. In 2018–19, the government of Ecuador sponsored a series of workshops to examine the conservation status of Ecuador's freshwater fishes. Concerns were identified for 35 species, most of which are native to the Amazon region, and overfishing of Amazonian pimelodid catfishes emerged as a major issue. However, much of the information needed to make decisions across fish groups and regions was not available, hindering the process and highlighting the need for a review of the conservation threats to Ecuador's freshwater fishes. Here, we review how the physical alteration of rivers, deforestation, wetland and floodplain degradation, agricultural and urban water pollution, mining, oil extraction, dams, overfishing, introduced species and climate change are affecting freshwater fishes in Ecuador. Although many of these factors affect fishes throughout the Neotropics, the lack of data on Ecuadorian fish communities is staggering and highlights the urgent need for more research. We also make recommendations, including the need for proper enforcement of existing environmental laws, restoration of degraded aquatic ecosystems, establishment of a national monitoring system for freshwater ecosystems, investment in research to fill gaps in knowledge, and encouragement of public engagement in citizen science and conservation efforts. Freshwater fishes are an important component of the cultural and biological legacy of the Ecuadorian people. Conserving them for future generations is critical.     

Safeguarding sloths and anteaters in the future: Priority areas for conservation under climate change

Sloths and anteaters form the monophyletic order Pilosa, which is currently represented by only 16 extant species distributed exclusively in the Neotropics. This present-day low species richness is an inheritance of the Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, where over 65 Pilosa species known from the fossil record went extinct. The large number of species lost in the recent past suggests that this group is greatly vulnerable to extinction. Here, we propose long-term priority conservation areas for the order Pilosa, considering different future climate change scenarios, biotic stability, and the multiple dimensions of the group's biodiversity, such as species richness, species endemism, and phylogenetic diversity. Projections of species distribution for future scenarios show increased fragmentation and clear habitat loss as the Amazon Forest is replaced by savanna-like habitats. Conservation solutions were highly congruent for the different dimensions of biodiversity, with priority areas emerging mainly in the Atlantic Forest, Amazonian wetlands, highlands of Ecuador, and the Central American isthmus. Expanding the currently protected areas network by 6% with the proposed priority areas, independently of which future climatic scenario is considered, can increase sloths and anteaters' coverage in the future by 12%. As a group of high phylogenetic and ecological importance, future conservation planning should deliberately aim to protect areas favorable to Pilosa, especially given the current scenario of environmental dismantling and neglect of critical Neotropical biomes.     

安徽石台县与青阳县苔藓植物多样性

生物多样性保护优先区域代表了生物多样性富集区、典型生态系统与关键物种分布区, 对于生物多样性保护具有重要意义, 但优先区域内自然保护地覆盖率通常较低, 存在很大的保护空缺。苔藓植物作为生物多样性的一个重要组成部分, 在生态系统中发挥着重要作用, 但由于个体细小、分类鉴定困难等, 使得其多样性保护成为整个生物多样性保护中较为薄弱的一环。为了了解我国生物多样性保护优先区域苔藓植物多样性及受保护情况, 本文以黄山-怀玉山生物多样性保护优先区域内的石台县和青阳县为例, 通过系统的样线法调查优先区域内自然保护地内、外的苔藓植物多样性, 比较了其物种组成特点及相似性。结果表明, 该区域共有苔藓植物64科140属344种, 包括苔类植物27科40属106种、藓类植物37科100属238种, 其中有5种为濒危物种。自然保护地内有60科120属270种, 保护地外有46科90属185种, 保护地内、外苔藓植物科、属、种的Jaccard相似性系数分别为0.66、0.50和0.32, 表明自然保护地内、外物种组成差异很大。与石台县和青阳县苔藓植物历史数据相比, 本研究新增苔藓植物14科64属273种, 其中包括安徽省新记录2科9属96种, 而且有18种仅分布于自然保护地外。根据对该区域物种累积曲线及外推估计分析, 当采集足够充分时, 基于标本数的物种多样性预测值为485种, 基于样线数的预测值为563种, 说明石台县和青阳县的苔藓植物多样性仍存在被低估的可能。本研究结果一方面表明了自然保护地之外的苔藓植物在保护中有重要价值, 另一方面也反映了苔藓植物的野外就地保护存在空缺。建议在我国其他生物多样性保护优先区域开展类似的调查和研究, 以期为今后对苔藓植物的分布规律及保护研究提供翔实的基础数据。     

The role of macroinvertebrates for conservation of freshwater systems

Freshwater ecosystems are the most threatened ecosystems worldwide. Argentinian‐protected areas have been established mainly to protect vertebrates and plants in terrestrial ecosystems. In order to create a comprehensive biodiverse conservation plan, it is crucial to integrate both aquatic and terrestrial systems and to include macroinvertebrates. Here, we address this topic by proposing priority areas of conservation including invertebrates, aquatic ecosystems, and their connectivity and land uses. Location: Northwest of Argentina. We modeled the ecological niches of different taxa of macroinvertebrates such as Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Megaloptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Acari, and Mollusca. Based on these models, we analyzed the contribution of currently established protected areas in the conservation of the aquatic biodiversity and we propose a spatial prioritization taking into account possible conflict regarding different land uses. Our analysis units were the real watersheds, to which were added longitudinal connectivity up and down the rivers. A total of 132 species were modeled in the priority area analyses. The analysis 1 showed that only an insignificant percentage of the macroinvertebrates distribution is within the protected areas in the North West of Argentina. The analyses 2 and 3 recovered similar values of protection for the macroinvertebrate species. The upper part of Bermejo, Salí‐Dulce, San Francisco, and the Upper part of Juramento basins were identified as priority areas of conservation. The aquatic ecosystems need special protection and 10% or even as much as 17% of land conservation is insufficient for species of macroinvertebrates. In turn the protected areas need to combine the aquatic and terrestrial systems and need to include macroinvertebrates as a key group to sustain the biodiversity. In many cases, the land uses are in conflict with the conservation of biodiversity; however, it is possible to apply the connectivity of the watersheds and create multiple‐use modules.     

The effects of climate change on a mega‐diverse country: predicted shifts in mammalian species richness and turnover in continental Ecuador

Ecuador has some of the greatest biodiversity in the world, sheltering global biodiversity hotspots in lowland and mountain regions. Climate change will likely have a major effect on these regions, but the consequences for faunal diversity and conservation remain unclear. To address this issue, we used an ensemble of eight species distribution models to predict future shifts and identify areas of high changes in species richness and species turnover for 201 mammals. We projected the distributions using two different climate change scenarios at the 2050 horizon and contrasted two extreme dispersal scenarios (no dispersal vs. full dispersal). Our results showed extended distributional shifts all over the country. For most groups, our results predicted that the current diversity of mammals in Ecuador would decrease significantly under all climate change scenarios and dispersal assumptions. The Northern Andes and the Amazonian region would remain diversity hotspots but with a significant decrease in the number of species. All predictions, including the most conservative scenarios in terms of dispersal and climate change, predicted major changes in the distribution of mammalian species diversity in Ecuador. Primates might be the most severely affected because they would have fewer suitable areas, compared with other mammals. Our work emphasizes the need for sound conservation strategies in Ecuador to mitigate the effects of climate change     

Climate change affects Galliformes taxonomic,phylogenetic and functional diversity indexes,shifting conservation priority areas in China

Aim

Comprehensive biodiversity protection necessitates the consideration of multiple indexes of diversity, and how the distribution patterns of priority areas may shift under climate change. Galliformes is a globally endangered avian order vulnerable to climate change that provide an important indicator for wildlife conservation effectiveness. Here, we identified priority areas for conserving Galliformes taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity in China and their spatial dynamics subject to climate change, and examined how well existing protected areas align with current and future priority areas.

Location

China.

Methods

We applied species distribution modelling and Zonation algorithms to identify conservation priority area dynamics for 47 galliform species across three biodiversity indexes subject to three future climate change scenarios to 2050s and 2070s. We overlaid these identified priority areas onto existing national nature reserves and national parks to assess and project their effectiveness.

Results

Current priority areas proved spatially incongruent between indexes, with an optimal area overlap comprising just 10.3% of China's land area, lying largely outside of existing protected areas. Furthermore, over 80% of modelled optimal priority areas currently lacked formal conservation status. Future priority areas will shift substantially under climate change, to an extent dependent on greenhouse gas emission scenarios. Nevertheless, we identified five large regions where optimal Galliformes diversity indexes should remain stable under all scenarios, thus providing potential climatic refugia, if protected from human encroachment.

Main Conclusions

The current deficits we identified for Galliformes protection in China resonate with a broader need for hierarchical conservation strategic planning across regions and ecosystems to ensure long-term biodiversity protection, accommodating for climate change.     

尤溪县生物多样性保护优先地区分析

选择人类活动频繁的常绿阔叶林林区具有代表性的福建尤溪县进行了生物多样性保护的优先性分析。在多次实地调查基础上,利用野生动物野外实地样带调查数据,已有的珍稀淑危鸟,兽和植物物种的分布资料,同时结合利用地理信息系统软件ARC/INFO数字化1：10万林相图和1：5万地形图,建立了基于GIS的尤溪县生物多样性信息系统,然后根据物种多样性,珍稀濒危物种保护和生态系统保护目标,确立了保护优先性分析原则,即珍稀濒危物种尽可能包含在保护区和保护小区内,同时在优先保护区尽可能包含更多的其它物种,用最新的森林分布图及调查物种分布与生境关系,生态系统在保护物种与生态系统功能等方面的作用等,提出了生态系统的保护优先地区,将提出保护优先地区与已建保护小区和保护点分布图进行叠加分析表明,保护小区和保护点的方法是保护珍稀濒危物种的有效方法,但是需要考虑保护小区之间的联系,在对大型哺乳动物保护时需要建立面积较大的自然保护区,最后,提出了建立自然保护区规划。     

贵州省国家重点保护野生植物物种丰富度分布特征及保护优先区分析

该研究以国家重点保护野生植物为指示物种,结合贵州各县(市、区)的国家重点保护野生植物调查统计信息,基于GIS技术,分析了贵州省国家重点保护野生植物物种丰富度分布特征;应用Dobson算法筛选识别贵州国家重点保护野生植物的保护优先区,并利用全省已建自然保护区信息评价分析所筛选的保护优先区的保护现状。结果表明:(1)在贵州国家重点保护野生植物的物种丰富度分布上,总体来说全省南部地区高于北部地区,环省界区域往内陆延伸的物种丰富度明显呈现减少趋势。(2)在75%和100%的国家重点保护野生植物物种保护水平上,筛选识别出了荔波县等4个和17个县域为保护优先区,其中分别有1个和9个国家重点保护野生植物保护优先区内涵盖的自然保护区面积低于5%,且涉及的自然保护区中68.26%的面积是市/县级。(3)贵州国家重点保护野生植物物种较丰富的区域和全省生物多样性热点区域与所筛选识别的保护优先区有较好的空间对应关系。(4)贵州国家重点保护野生植物的就地保护应以国家重点保护野生植物地理分布丰富的区域结合本研究筛选的保护优先区为重点,进行优先保护。     

基于随机森林模型的国家重点保护陆生脊椎动物物种优先保护区的识别

准确可靠地识别国家重点保护陆生脊椎动物物种的优先保护区,是生物多样性保护的热点问题之一。采用随机森林(random forests)模型,基于12个环境变量,对中国263种国家重点保护陆生脊椎动物建模,并预测各个物种在背景点的适生概率,迭加计算得到国家重点保护陆生脊椎动物物种的生境适宜性指数。此外,基于对生境适宜性指数的空间自相关分析,识别和确定国家重点保护陆生脊椎动物物种优先保护区,并对优先保护区目前的被保护情况进行分析。结果表明,国家重点保护陆生脊椎动物物种的优先保护区的面积为103.16万km~2,约占我国国土面积的10.90%。优先保护区主要分布在我国的西部地区,包括西南地区的秦岭-大巴山山区、云南省与印度及缅甸的交界地区、武陵山山区、喜马拉雅山-横断山脉山区、阿尔泰山脉山区、天山山脉山区、昆仑山山脉山区;东北的大、小兴安岭、东北-华南沿海地区及长江中下游地区有少量分布。优先保护区中被保护的面积为50.40万km~2,占优先保护区总面积的48.86%,保护率偏低,未被充分保护。利用系统聚类分析,将未被保护的优先保护区划分成3种优先保护顺序,以期为相关部门的决策提供科学依据,更好地保护生物多样性。     

Conservation strategies to mitigate impacts from climate change in Amazonia

Protected area systems and conservation corridors can help mitigate the impacts of climate change on Amazonian biodiversity. We propose conservation design criteria that will help species survive in situ or adjust range distributions in response to increased drought. The first priority is to protect the western Amazon, identified as the 'Core Amazon', due to stable rainfall regimes and macro-ecological phenomena that have led to the evolution of high levels of biodiversity. Ecotones can buffer the impact from climate change because populations are genetically adapted to climate extremes, particularly seasonality, because high levels of habitat diversity are associated with edaphic variability. Future climatic tension zones should be surveyed for geomorphological features that capture rain or conserve soil moisture to identify potential refugia for humid forest species. Conservation corridors should span environmental gradients to ensure that species can shift range distributions. Riparian corridors provide protection to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Multiple potential altitudinal corridors exist in the Andes, but natural and anthropogenic bottlenecks will constrain the ability of species to shift their ranges and adapt to climate change. Planned infrastructure investments are a serious threat to the potential to consolidate corridors over the short and medium term.     

Integrating spatially explicit habitat projections into extinction risk assessments: a reassessment of Amazonian avifauna incorporating projected deforestation

Aim We aimed to complete the first systematic assessment of extinction risk based on projected population declines derived from spatially explicit habitat projections for any taxonomic group at a regional scale, to use the outputs to ascertain the efficacy of an existing protected area network in covering species of conservation concern, and identify gaps therein. Location This study focused on Amazonia; an area of exceptional biodiversity, currently experiencing the highest absolute rate of forest loss globally but where the proportion of species assessed as ‘threatened’ on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List in the region is below global averages. Methods For all forest‐dependent Amazonian bird species (814), we revised extinction risk estimates by combining data from a spatially explicit deforestation model with generation length estimates. By overlaying distribution maps for these revised threatened species, we identified crisis areas (areas of projected deforestation supporting the highest numbers of threatened species), refugia (areas projected to retain forest supporting the highest numbers of threatened species) and areas of high irreplaceability: short‐ and long‐term priorities for new protected areas (PAs). Results The number of species qualifying as threatened rose substantially from 24 (3%) to 64–92 (8–11%). Areas of particular concern are the crisis and highly irreplaceable areas within the ‘arc of deforestation’ in the southern Brazilian Amazon states of Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Pará. Main conclusions Through a novel application of the IUCN Red List criteria, we present a spatially accurate rendering of the extinction risks of Amazonian birds. Important areas in the Amazon are not secure. We identify priorities for expansion of the PAs network and key locations where protection should be enforced. We recommend a collaborative approach employing our methods to repeat this process for other taxonomic groups.     

黄海生态区保护空缺分析

黄海生态区是世界自然基金会筛选出来的全球最优先保护的43个海洋生态区之一。目前, 我国已在黄海生态区内建立多处海洋保护地, 有效保护了其海洋生态系统及生物多样性。然而我国海洋保护地管理和建设中仍有许多问题, 存在较多保护空缺区域。因此, 完善黄海生态区内的海洋保护地建设是非常关键的。本文利用空缺分析法研究了黄海生态区内的重要滨海湿地、关键物种以及重点海域, 以识别保护空缺理论图斑, 从而提出新建保护地的提议。根据空缺分析结果, 黄海生态区内的主要保护空缺为辽河口湿地、曹妃甸海草床、天津塘沽和黄骅湿地、胶东半岛湿地、舟山群岛等。建议优化整合黄河口海洋保护地, 扩大或新建斑海豹(Phoca largha)、勺嘴鹬(Eurynorhynchus pygmeus)保护地, 并加强对东亚江豚(Neophocaena asiaeorientalis sunameri)以及小须鲸(Balaenoptera acutorostrata)的调查研究, 以形成更有效的海洋保护地网络。     

云南被子植物菊类分支的系统发育多样性及其分布格局

全球气候变化与人为活动等因素导致的生物多样性丧失,引起了全球各界对生物多样性保护的高度关注。传统生物多样性保护主要对物种、特有种、受威胁物种的种类组成及其分布模式开展研究,忽视了进化历史在生物多样性保护中的作用。云南是全球生物多样性热点地区的交汇区,生物多样性的保护历来受到广泛关注,为了更好地探讨云南生物多样性的保护措施,该研究以云南被子植物菊类分支物种为研究对象,基于物种间的演化关系,结合其地理分布,从进化历史的角度探讨物种、特有种、受威胁物种的种类组成及系统发育组成的分布格局,并整合自然保护地的空间分布,识别生物多样性的重点保护区域。结果表明:云南被子植物菊类分支的物种、特有种及受威胁物种的物种密度与系统发育多样性均显著正相关; 通过零模型分析发现,由南向北标准化系统发育多样性逐渐降低; 云南南部、东南部、西北部是云南被子植物菊类分支的重点保护区域,加强这些区域的保护,将最大化地保护生物多样性的进化历史和进化潜能。由此可见,融合进化历史信息的植物多样性格局分析不仅有助于更加深入地理解植物多样性的形成与演变,也为生物多样性保护策略的制定提供更多的思路。     

Systematics of treefrogs of the Hypsiboas calcaratus and Hypsiboas fasciatus species complex (Anura,Hylidae) with the description of four new species

We review the systematics of the Hypsiboas calcaratus species complex, a group of widely distributed Amazonian hylid frogs. A comprehensive analysis of genetic, morphological, and bioacoustic datasets uncovered the existence of eleven candidate species, six of which are confirmed. Two of them correspond to Hypsiboas fasciatus and Hypsiboas calcaratus and the remaining four are new species that we describe here. Hypsiboas fasciatus sensu stricto has a geographic range restricted to the eastern Andean foothills of southern Ecuador while Hypsiboas calcaratus sensu stricto has a wide distribution in the Amazon basin. Hypsiboas almendarizae sp. n. occurs at elevations between 500 and 1950 m in central and northern Ecuador; the other new species (H. maculateralis sp. n., H. alfaroi sp. n., and H. tetete sp. n.) occur at elevations below 500 m in Amazonian Ecuador and Peru. The new species differ from H. calcaratus and H. fasciatus in morphology, advertisement calls, and mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. Five candidate species from the Guianan region, Peru, and Bolivia are left as unconfirmed. Examination of the type material of Hyla steinbachi, from Bolivia, shows that it is not conspecific with H. fasciatus and thus is removed from its synonymy.     

Conservation of Chinese Theaceae species under future climate and land use changes

Aim

Climate and land use changes are two major pervasive and growing global causes of rapid changes in the distribution patterns of biodiversity, challenging the future effectiveness of protected areas (PAs), which were mainly designed based on a static view of biodiversity. Therefore, evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas for protecting the species threatened by climate and land use change is critical for future biodiversity conservation.

Location

China.

Methods

Here, using distributions of 200 Chinese Theaceae species and ensemble species distribution models, we identified species threatened by future climate and land use change (i.e. species with predicted loss of suitable habitat ≥30%) under scenarios incorporating climate change, land use change and dispersal. We then estimate the richness distribution patterns of threatened species and identify priority conservation areas and conservation gaps of the current PA network.

Results

Our results suggest that 36.30%–51.85% of Theaceae species will be threatened by future climate and land use conditions and that although the threatened species are mainly distributed at low latitudes in China under both current and future periods, the mean richness of the threatened species per grid cell will decline by 0.826–3.188 species by the 2070s. Moreover, we found that these priority conservation areas are highly fragmented and that the current PA network only covers 14.21%–20.87% of the ‘areas worth exploring’ and 6.91%–7.91% of the ‘areas worth attention’.

Main Conclusions

Our findings highlight the necessity of establishing new protected areas and ecological corridors in priority conservation areas to protect the threatened species. Moreover, our findings also highlight the importance of taking into consideration the potential threatened species under future climate and land use conditions when designating priority areas for biodiversity conservation.     

Contrasting palm species and use diversity in the Yucatan Peninsula and the Ecuadorian Amazon

We analyze the relationship between palm species diversity and diversity of palm use in two areas (Amazonian Ecuador; Yucatan Peninsula) of equivalent size but with contrasting characteristics in palm species diversity and morphology, and in the phylogenetic composition of palm flora. The areas also differ in their cultural and socioeconomic contexts. Palm use diversity is significantly higher in the Ecuadorian Amazon than in the Yucatan Peninsula and the lower species diversity of palms in the Yucatan Peninsula is not matched by a more intensive use of the fewer species found there. The taxonomic composition of the palm flora is a poor predictor of extent of use and morphological characteristics of palm species affect usefulness only in the Ecuadorian Amazon. The Yucatecans’ more limited reliance on forest products might explain the observed patterns. Ornamental palm use is an indicator of a general change in plant use patterns associated with tourism and macro-economic development in the Yucatan Peninsula. We find a positive relationship between ecosystem plant diversity and plant use diversity, but socioeconomic factors such as market integration strongly influence the use of local biodiversity. Palms represent a diverse and important natural resource that deserves further investigation to secure its sustainable management and conservation in the two studied sites, regardless of their degree of market integration.     

基于不可替代性的青海省三江源地区保护区功能区划研究

具有代表性、灵活性、综合性的保护区功能区划指标是决定区域划分合理与否的关键因素。不可替代性是近年来引入生物多样性保护规划的新概念,表达一个规划单元在实现整体保护目标中的重要性,能够反映生物多样性保护价值的空间分异规律,将其与人类活动干扰指数结合,可以在划分不同值域与功能分区之间建立联系。在系统保护规划框架下,首先根据三江源生物多样性特征确定了研究区域的指示物种和优先保护生态系统,然后结合物种生境特性,利用地理信息系统（GIS）技术进行了指示物种潜在分布范围预测,最后借助生物多样性保护规划软件（C-Plan）计算了三江源地区不可替代性指数,结合人类活动干扰进行了功能区划分,并对比了现有功能区划与新功能区划的贡献率。研究结果表明,不可替代性较高区域与原核心区空间分布基本一致（包括东部中铁、军功、麦秀森林灌丛区;西部索加、曲麻莱湖泊湿地区,高寒草甸区;北部扎陵湖、鄂陵湖、星星海湿地区;及南部玉树、囊谦森林灌丛区,当曲沼泽湿地区）;在保护区总面积未增加条件下,基于不可替代性的新功能区划较原功能区划的保护贡献率及保护效率有显著提高,核心区保护贡献率由61.20%增长到71.21%,新核心区 缓冲区总贡献率由77.57%增长到92.45%,保护区整体贡献率由91.20%增长到95.40%;从保护对象被保护情况看,新功能区划与原功能区划均能完全涵盖所有保护对象,但新功能区所包含的满足保护目标的保护对象明显增多,原功能区核心区,核心区 缓冲区,核心区 缓冲区 实验区完全实现目标的保护对象分别占27.50%,47.50%和80%,新功能区分别为32.50%,77.50%和87.50%（新功能区划下,只有苔草草甸、冰川雪山、湖泊3种生态系统类型和盘羊、黑颈鹤两个动物物种未达到保护目标）。在本研究基础上,讨论了该研究的意义、方法评价及现实问题,并提出三江源自然保护区功能区划调整建议：1）结合实际情况,基于不可替代性和人类活动的功能区划对现功能区划进行适当调整以增加保护区的保护贡献率;2）对于缓冲区中保护价值较高、人类活动干扰又较强的区域应进行严格的管理,制定完善的管理策略,避免因人类活动引起生物多样性丧失;3）鉴于当地经济发展需求,可以考虑在本研究确定的实验区及其外围开展水电站与矿产开发项目,但必须考虑开发项目对周围水域、植被及居民的影响。以期为三江源自然保护区功能区划的调整及资源开发提供参考,对三江源生物多样性的保护具有重要意义。     

High levels of cryptic species diversity uncovered in Amazonian frogs

One of the greatest challenges for biodiversity conservation is the poor understanding of species diversity. Molecular methods have dramatically improved our ability to uncover cryptic species, but the magnitude of cryptic diversity remains unknown, particularly in diverse tropical regions such as the Amazon Basin. Uncovering cryptic diversity in amphibians is particularly pressing because amphibians are going extinct globally at an alarming rate. Here, we use an integrative analysis of two independent Amazonian frog clades, Engystomops toadlets and Hypsiboas treefrogs, to test whether species richness is underestimated and, if so, by how much. We sampled intensively in six countries with a focus in Ecuador (Engystomops: 252 individuals from 36 localities; Hypsiboas: 208 individuals from 65 localities) and combined mitochondrial DNA, nuclear DNA, morphological, and bioacoustic data to detect cryptic species. We found that in both clades, species richness was severely underestimated, with more undescribed species than described species. In Engystomops, the two currently recognized species are actually five to seven species (a 150-250% increase in species richness); in Hypsiboas, two recognized species represent six to nine species (a 200-350% increase). Our results suggest that Amazonian frog biodiversity is much more severely underestimated than previously thought.