β-分泌酶抑制剂研究进展

阿尔兹海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)是一种退行性的神经性疾病,其主要病理特征为β-淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid protein,Aβ)的异常聚集及tau蛋白的过度磷酸化。研究发现,β-分泌酶上调在Aβ沉积发生发展过程中具有重要作用。抑制β-分泌酶活性有可能减少淀粉样病变,从而延缓AD病理发生。现结合AD的发病机制对β-分泌酶的特点及β-分泌酶抑制剂的研究进展进行综述。     

β-arrestin的生物学研究进展

β-arrestin 1和2是一类介导受体脱敏的重要可溶性蛋白质,对绝大部分与受体偶联G蛋白介导的信号转导具有重要调节作用,在G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs)脱敏、内化、复敏、细胞增殖反应和基因转录中具有重要地位.对β-arrestin介导的复杂信号通路的研究将揭示它们的调节功能对人类健康的影响,有助于开发新一代影响GPCRs的药物.     

泛素-蛋白酶体系统对Aβ生成与代谢调控作用的研究进展

阿尔茨海默症(AD)是中枢神经系统退行性疾病,目前其确切发病机制未明,也无有效的治疗手段。淀粉样蛋白级联假说认为,β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)是AD形成的关键因素。泛素-蛋白酶体系统(UPS)是胞内主要蛋白质质量控制系统,最近研究发现其可调控Aβ的生成和代谢,进而参与AD的发生。UPS可通过调控泛素化APP、β-分泌酶及γ-分泌酶各成分的代谢参与Aβ生成;同时UPS也是Aβ主要降解途径之一;而Aβ也可抑制UPS系统蛋白酶体活性。本文对此进行了综述。     

与癌症相关的G 蛋白偶联受体及通路的研究进展

G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors,GPCRs)是一类重要的细胞膜表面跨膜蛋白受体超家族,具有7个跨膜螺旋结构。GPCRs的细胞内信号由G蛋白介导,可将激素、神经递质、药物、趋化因子等多种物理和化学的细胞外刺激穿过细胞膜转导到细胞内不同的效应分子,激活相应的信号级联系统进而影响恶性肿瘤的生长迁移过程。虽然目前药物市场上有很多治疗癌症的小分子药物属于G蛋白受体相关药物,但所作用的靶点集中于少数特定G蛋白偶联受体。因此,新的具有成药性的G蛋白偶联受体的开发具有很大的研究价值和市场潜力。本文主要以在癌症发生、发展中起重要作用的溶血磷脂酸(LPA),G蛋白偶联受体30(GPR30)、内皮素A受体(ETAR)等不同G蛋白偶联受体为分类依据,综述其与相关的信号通路在癌症进程中的作用,并对相应的小分子药物的临床应用和研究进展进行展望。     

我国科学家发现阿尔茨海默症致病的新机制

2006年11月19日,国际著名学术期刊NatMed网络版在线发表了我国科学家关于β淀粉样蛋白产生过程新机制的最新研究成果。中国科学院上海生命科学研究院生物化学与细胞生物学研究所裴钢院士研究组经多年研究后发现,β2-肾上腺素受体被激活后,增强γ-分泌酶的活性,进而能够增加导致阿尔茨海默症的β淀粉样蛋白的产生。这项发现揭示了阿尔茨海默症致病的新机制,并且提示β2-肾上腺素受体有可能成为研发阿尔茨海默症的治疗药物的新靶点。阿尔茨海默症(老年痴呆症)是一种以进行性认知障碍和记忆力损害为主的中枢神经系统退行性疾病,患者初期出现记…     

β-肾上腺素受体调节蛋白及其功能

血管疾病成为威胁人类健康头号杀手,心血管受体在心血管疾病的发生、发展及预防和治疗中具有举足轻重的地位。β-肾上腺素受体作为G蛋白偶联受体家族的成员,是心血管药物最重要的靶点之一。β-肾上腺素受体阻滞剂被认为是继洋地黄后药物防治心脏疾病的最伟大突破,其在心血管领域的研究和应用一直是被关注的热点。2012年度诺贝尔化学奖再次授予了β-肾上腺素受体的研究。随着研究的深入,人们发现β-肾上腺素受体接受着细胞内调控蛋白的精密调控,不同调控蛋白介导着受体不同的生理信号通路和病理性信号通路。基于这些发现,近年来提出了受体功能选择性的配体药物,这也将成为未来药物的研究方向。本文综述了β-肾上腺素受体调节蛋白及相关信号通路及功能。     

β-淀粉样蛋白神经毒性及其防治策略

β-淀粉样蛋白（amyloid β-peptide,Aβ）的过量表达和异常聚集是引起阿尔茨海默病的重要原因之一。以β-淀粉样蛋白级联假说为线索,阐述分泌酶对Aβ生成的影响,不同聚合状态Aβ的神经毒性以及Aβ毒性作用机制,总结Aβ生成、聚合、清除过程中神经毒性的相应防治措施,对阿尔茨海默病中β-淀粉样蛋白神经毒性最新研究进展作一综述。     

GPCR在类风湿关节炎中的作用机制研究进展

类风湿关节炎(rheumatoid arthritis, RA)是一种以滑膜炎为特征的自身免疫性疾病,伴有异常免疫反应。G蛋白偶联受体(G protein coupled receptor, GPCR)是人体最大的跨膜受体家族,介导RA的发生发展过程,其相关信号通路在RA炎症和免疫应答过程中发挥重要作用。研究发现,GPCR/AC/cAMP相关通路,如β2-ARs/AC/cAMP、EP2/4/AC/cAMP和CXCR/AC/cAMP等信号通路,以及相关调节蛋白,如GRK和β-arrestins等,可能参与RA的淋巴细胞功能异常、血管生成及关节破坏等病理过程。由此,β2-ARs等受体以及GRK等调节蛋白可能作为RA的潜在治疗靶标。现通过简要阐述GPCR相关通路及其调节蛋白的特点,以期加深对GPCR参与RA调控的认识,为类风湿关节炎药物的开发提供新的思路。     

β-淀粉样蛋白清除障碍在阿尔兹海默症发病中的作用

阿尔兹海默症(Alzheimer's disease,AD)是以认知功能受损和记忆障碍为主要临床特征的神经退行性疾病,其病因复杂,缺乏有效的诊断、治疗和预防手段。β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloidβ-protein,Aβ)是含有39～43个氨基酸的多肽,由淀粉样前体蛋白加工产生并分泌至脑组织间液(interstitial fluid,ISF)。Aβ在脑细胞外间隙(extracellular space,ECS)内聚集是AD形成和发展的关键因素,也是AD的特征之一。Aβ清除功能障碍将导致Aβ在特定脑区内聚集,其神经毒性造成突触损伤和神经元死亡,从而导致了AD的发生。本文综述了目前对于AD中脑内Aβ清除障碍的研究进展,力图为AD的预防和治疗提供一个新的研究方向。     

作为2型糖尿病治疗药物的G蛋白偶联受体40激动剂研究进展

2型糖尿病约占糖尿病总病例数的90%,目前研发的其新型治疗药物主要是通过调节糖代谢通路来控制血糖水平,它们可通过激活 G蛋白偶联受体尤其是G蛋白偶联受体40,增强胰岛β细胞功能,促进胰岛素分泌,提高机体对胰岛素的敏感性,从而达到治疗糖尿病的目的。 G蛋白偶联受体40作为抗2型糖尿病的新靶点,以其潜在优势,在糖尿病治疗领域备受关注。简介G蛋白偶联受体与其配体游离脂肪酸, 重点综述不同结构的G蛋白偶联受体40激动剂的研究进展。     

Oxidative lipid modification of nicastrin enhances amyloidogenic γ-secretase activity in Alzheimer's disease

The cause of elevated level of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ42) in common late-onset sporadic [Alzheimer's disease (AD)] has not been established. Here, we show that the membrane lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) is associated with amyloid and neurodegenerative pathologies in AD and that it enhances γ-secretase activity and Aβ42 production in neurons. The γ-secretase substrate receptor, nicastrin, was found to be modified by HNE in cultured neurons and in brain specimens from patients with AD, in which HNE-nicastrin levels were found to be correlated with increased γ-secretase activity and Aβ plaque burden. Furthermore, HNE modification of nicastrin enhanced its binding to the γ-secretase substrate, amyloid precursor protein (APP) C99. In addition, the stimulation of γ-secretase activity and Aβ42 production by HNE were blocked by an HNE-scavenging histidine analog in a 3xTgAD mouse model of AD. These findings suggest a specific molecular mechanism by which oxidative stress increases Aβ42 production in AD and identify HNE as a novel therapeutic target upstream of the γ-secretase cleavage of APP.     

The Swedish dilemma - the almost exclusive use of APPswe-based mouse models impedes adequate evaluation of alternative β-secretases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, however incurable so far. It is widely accepted that aggregated amyloid β (Aβ) peptides play a crucial role for the pathogenesis of AD, as they cause neurotoxicity and deposit as so-called Aβ plaques in AD patient brains. Aβ peptides derive from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) upon consecutive cleavage at the β- and γ-secretase site. Hence, mutations in the APP gene are often associated with autosomal dominant inherited AD. Almost thirty years ago, two mutations at the β-secretase site were observed in two Swedish families (termed Swedish APP (APPswe) mutations), which led to early-onset AD. Consequently, APPswe was established in almost every common AD mouse model, as it contributes to early Aβ plaque formation and cognitive impairments. Analyzing these APPswe-based mouse models, the aspartyl protease BACE1 has been evolving as the prominent β-secretase responsible for Aβ release in AD and as the most important therapeutic target for AD treatment. However, with respect to β-secretase processing, the very rare occurring APPswe variant substantially differs from wild-type APP. BACE1 dominates APPswe processing resulting in the release of Aβ1-x, whereas N-terminally truncated Aβ forms are scarcely generated. However, these N-terminally truncated Aβ species such as Aβ2-x, Aβ3-x and Aβ4-x are elevated in AD patient brains and exhibit an increased potential to aggregate compared to Aβ1-x peptides. Proteases such as meprin β, cathepsin B and ADAMTS4 were identified as alternative β-secretases being capable of generating these N-terminally truncated Aβ species from wild-type APP. However, neither meprin β nor cathepsin B are capable of generating N-terminally truncated Aβ peptides from APPswe. Hence, the role of BACE1 for the Aβ formation during AD might be overrepresented through the excessive use of APPswe mouse models. In this review we critically discuss the consideration of BACE1 as the most promising therapeutic target. Shifting the focus of AD research towards alternative β secretases might unveil promising alternatives to BACE1 inhibitors constantly failing in clinical trials due to ineffectiveness and harmful side effects.     

Processive proteolysis by γ-secretase and the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease

Abstract γ-Secretase is a membrane-embedded protease complex with presenilin as the catalytic component. Cleavage within the transmembrane domain of the amyloid β-protein precursor (APP) by γ-secretase produces the C-terminus of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ), a proteolytic product prone to aggregation and strongly linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Presenilin mutations are associated with early-onset AD, but their pathogenic mechanisms are unclear. One hypothesis is that these mutations cause AD through a toxic gain of function, changing γ-secretase activity to increase the proportion of 42-residue Aβ over the more soluble 40-residue form. A competing hypothesis is that the mutations cause AD through a loss of function, by reducing γ-secretase activity. However, γ-secretase apparently has two types of activities, an endoproteolytic function that first cuts APP to generate a 48/49-residue form of Aβ, and a carboxypeptidase activity that processively trims these longer Aβ intermediates approximately every three residues to form shorter, secreted forms. Recent studies suggest a resolution of the gain-of-function vs. loss-of-function debate: presenilin mutations may increase the proportion of longer, more aggregation-prone Aβ by specifically decreasing the trimming activity of γ-secretase. That is, the reduction of this particular proteolytic function of presenilin, not its endoproteolytic activity, may lead to the neurotoxic gain of function.     

Depletion of CXCR2 inhibits γ-secretase activity and amyloid-β production in a murine model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that leads to progressive cognitive decline. Recent studies from our group and others have suggested that certain G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) can influence the processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Earlier, we demonstrated that stimulation of a chemokine receptor, CXCR2, results in enhanced γ-secretase activity and in increased amyloid-beta (Aβ) production. Taken together, results obtained from in vitro studies indicate that therapeutic targeting of CXCR2 might aid in lowering Aβ levels in the AD brain. To better understand the precise function and to predict the consequences of CXCR2 depletion in the AD brain, we have crossed CXCR2 knockout mice with mice expressing presenilin (PS1 M146L) and APPsw mutations (PSAPP). Our present study confirms that CXCR2 depletion results in reduction of Aβ with concurrent increases of γ-secretase substrates. At the mechanistic level, the effect of CXCR2 on γ-secretase was not found to occur via their direct interaction. Furthermore, we provide evidence that Aβ promotes endocytosis of CXCR2 via increasing levels of CXCR2 ligands. In conclusion, our current study confirms the regulatory role of CXCR2 in APP processing, and poses it as a potential target for developing novel therapeutics for intervention in AD.     

Developing β-secretase inhibitors for treatment of Alzheimer's disease

β-Secretase (memapsin 2; BACE-1) is the first protease in the processing of amyloid precursor protein leading to the production of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the brain. It is believed that high levels of brain Aβ are responsible for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, β-secretase is a major therapeutic target for the development of inhibitor drugs. During the past decade, steady progress has been made in the evolution of β-secretase inhibitors toward better drug properties. Recent inhibitors are potent, selective and have been shown to penetrate the blood-brain barrier to inhibit Aβ levels in the brains of experimental animals. Moreover, continuous administration of a β-secretase inhibitor was shown to rescue age-related cognitive decline in transgenic AD mice. A small number of β-secretase inhibitors have also entered early phase clinical trials. These developments offer some optimism for the clinical development of a disease-modifying drug for AD.     

Lysine 624 of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a critical determinant of amyloid β peptide length: support for a sequential model of γ-secretase intramembrane proteolysis and regulation by the amyloid β precursor protein (APP) juxtamembrane region

γ-Secretase is a multiprotein intramembrane cleaving aspartyl protease (I-CLiP) that catalyzes the final cleavage of the amyloid β precursor protein (APP) to release the amyloid β peptide (Aβ). Aβ is the primary component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and its mechanism of production has been studied intensely. γ-Secretase executes multiple cleavages within the transmembrane domain of APP, with cleavages producing Aβ and the APP intracellular domain (AICD), referred to as γ and ε, respectively. The heterogeneous nature of the γ cleavage that produces various Aβ peptides is highly relevant to AD, as increased production of Aβ 1-42 is genetically and biochemically linked to the development of AD. We have identified an amino acid in the juxtamembrane region of APP, lysine 624, on the basis of APP695 numbering (position 28 relative to Aβ) that plays a critical role in determining the final length of Aβ peptides released by γ-secretase. Mutation of this lysine to alanine (K28A) shifts the primary site of γ-secretase cleavage from 1-40 to 1-33 without significant changes to ε cleavage. These results further support a model where ε cleavage occurs first, followed by sequential proteolysis of the remaining transmembrane fragment, but extend these observations by demonstrating that charged residues at the luminal boundary of the APP transmembrane domain limit processivity of γ-secretase.     

Autoreactive-Aβ antibodies promote APP β-secretase processing

Several prior investigations of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients have indicated naturally occurring autoantibodies against amyloid-β (Aβ) species are produced. Although many studies have focused on the relative concentrations or binding affinities of autoantibodies against Aβ-related proteins in AD and aging, data regarding their functional properties are limited. It is generally believed that these antibodies act to aid in clearance of Aβ. However, as antibodies which bind to Aβ also typically bind to the parent amyloid precursor protein (APP), we reasoned that certain Aβ-targeting autoantibodies may bind to APP thereby altering its conformation and processing. Here we show for the first time, that naturally occurring Aβ-reactive autoantibodies isolated from AD patients, but not from healthy controls, promote β-secretase activity in cultured cells. Furthermore, using monoclonal antibodies to various regions of Aβ, we found that antibodies generated against the N-terminal region, especially Aβ(1-17) , dose dependently promoted amyloidogenic processing of APP viaβ-secretase activation. Thus, this property of certain autoantibodies in driving Aβ generation could be of etiological importance in the development of sporadic forms of AD. Furthermore, future passive or active anti-Aβ immunotherapies must consider potential off-target effects resulting from antibodies targeting the N-terminus of Aβ, as co-binding to the corresponding region of APP may actually enhance Aβ generation.     

Dissociation between the processivity and total activity of γ-secretase: implications for the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease-causing presenilin mutations

The amyloid β-peptide (Aβ), strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), is produced from the amyloid β-protein precursor (APP) through consecutive proteolysis by β- and γ-secretases. The latter protease contains presenilin as the catalytic component of a membrane-embedded aspartyl protease complex. Missense mutations in presenilin are associated with early-onset familial AD, and these mutations generally both decrease Aβ production and increase the ratio of the aggregation-prone 42-residue form (Aβ42) to the 40-residue form (Aβ40). The connection between these two effects is not understood. Besides Aβ40 and Aβ42, γ-secretase produces a range of Aβ peptides, the result of initial cutting at the ε site to form Aβ48 or Aβ49 and subsequent trimming every three or four residues. Thus, γ-secretase displays both overall proteolytic activity (ε cutting) and processivity (trimming) toward its substrate APP. Here we tested whether a decrease in total activity correlates with decreased processivity using wild-type and AD-mutant presenilin-containing protease complexes. Changes in pH, temperature, and salt concentration that reduced the overall activity of the wild-type enzyme did not consistently result in increased proportions of longer Aβ peptides. Low salt concentrations and acidic pH were notable exceptions that subtly alter the proportion of individual Aβ peptides, suggesting that the charged state of certain residues may influence processivity. Five different AD mutant complexes, representing a broad range of effects on overall activity, Aβ42:Aβ40 ratios, and ages of disease onset, were also tested, revealing again that changes in total activity and processivity can be dissociated. Factors that control initial proteolysis of APP at the ε site apparently differ significantly from factors affecting subsequent trimming and the distribution of Aβ peptides.     

Lysophosphatidic acid induces increased BACE1 expression and Aβ formation

The abnormal production and accumulation of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ), which is produced from amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the sequential actions of β-secretase and γ-secretase, are thought to be the initial causative events in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Accumulating evidence suggests that vascular factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. Specifically, studies have suggested that one vascular factor in particular, oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL), may play an important role in regulating Aβ formation in AD. However, the mechanism by which oxLDL modulates Aβ formation remains elusive. In this study, we report several new findings that provide biochemical evidence suggesting that the cardiovascular risk factor oxLDL may contribute to Alzheimer's disease by increasing Aβ production. First, we found that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), the most bioactive component of oxLDL induces increased production of Aβ. Second, our data strongly indicate that LPA induces increased Aβ production via upregulating β-secretase expression. Third, our data strongly support the notion that different isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC) may play different roles in regulating APP processing. Specifically, most PKC members, such as PKCα, PKCβ, and PKCε, are implicated in regulating α-secretase-mediated APP processing; however, PKCδ, a member of the novel PKC subfamily, is involved in LPA-induced upregulation of β-secretase expression and Aβ production. These findings may contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms by which the cardiovascular risk factor oxLDL is involved in Alzheimer's disease.     

Effects of Aluminium on β-Amyloid (1–42) and Secretases (APP-Cleaving Enzymes) in Rat Brain

Chronic administration of aluminium has been proposed as an environmental factor that may affect some pathological changes related to neurotoxicity and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The abnormal generation and deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) in senile plaques are hallmark features in the brains of AD patients. Furthermore, Aβ is generated by the sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) via the APP cleaving enzyme (α-secretase, or β-secretase) and γ-secretase. In the present study, we investigated the modulation of Aβ deposition and neurotoxicity in aluminium-maltolate-treated (0, 15, 30, 45 mmol/kg body weight via intraperitoneal injection) in experimental rats. We measured Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42 in the cortex and hippocampus in rat brains using ELISA. Subtypes of α-secretase, β-secretase, and γ-secretase, including ADAM9, ADAM10, ADAM17 (TACE), BACE1, presenilin 1 (PS1) and nicastrin (NCT), were determined using western blotting analyses. These results indicated that aluminium-maltolate induced an AD-like behavioural deficit in rats at 30 and 45 mmol/kg body weight. Moreover, the Aβ1–42 content increased significantly, both in the cortex and hippocampus, although no changes were observed in Aβ1–40. Furthermore, ADAM9, ADAM10, and ADAM17 decreased significantly; in contrast, BACE1, PS1, and NCT showed significant increase. Taken together, these results suggest that the changes in secretases may correlate to the abnormal deposition of Aβ by aluminium in rat brains.