Further studies in flood tolerance of Betula papyrifera seedlings

Flooding of soil for 60 days drastically reduced height growth, cambial growth, dry weight increment, and relative growth rate of 150-day-old Betula papyrifera Marsh. seedlings. Comparisons of responses to flooding of 150-day-old and 230-day-old seedlings indicated important differences between the two age classes. Whereas the younger seedlings produced abundant adventitious roots on submerged portions of stems, the older seedlings did not. Flooding also induced much more leaf abscission in the older seedlings. Flooding generally reduced root-shoot ratios of both age classes, largely as a result of inhibition of growth and decay of root systems. However, root-shoot ratios were altered appreciably by formation of adventitious roots in the younger seedlings and by extensive leaf abscission in the older seedlings.     

Effects of Cd2+ and EDTA on young sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). II. Net uptake and distribution of Mg2+, Ca2+ and Fe2+/Fe3+

Levels of Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ were determined in roots and shoots of sugar beet seedlings (Beta vulgaris L. cv. Monohill) cultured for 5 weeks in a complete nutrient solution to which either Cd²⁺ (0, 5 or 50 μM), EDTA (0, 10 or 100 μM) or a combination of both was added. The plants subjected to the various treatments showed a variety of deficiency symptoms. Leaves of the Cd²⁺-treated plants became thin and chlorotic (Mg- and Fe-deficiency symptoms). The plants showed reduced growth and developed only a few brownish roots with short laterals (Ca-deficiency symptoms). EDTA treatment resulted in green, stunted, hard leaves and reduced growth (Ca-deficiency symptoms). The deficiency symptoms observed correspond well with the observed uptake rates and distributions of Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺. Increases in either Cd²⁺, EDTA or a combination of both in the growth medium, were correlated with increasing Mg²⁺ levels in the roots and with decreasing Mg²⁺ levels in the shoots. Cd²⁺ alone or in combination with EDTA had little influence on Ca²⁺ levels in the shoots but decreased Ca²⁺ levels in the roots. Thus, Cd²⁺ affects Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ transport in opposite ways: Mg²⁺ transport to the shoots is inhibited while that of Ca²⁺ is facilitated. Treatment with EDTA alone did not affect Ca²⁺ concentrations in either the shoots or the roots. Treatment with Cd²⁺ lowered Fe²⁺ concentrations in both roots and shoots.     

盐胁迫下构树幼苗各器官中K+、Ca2+、Na+和Cl-含量分布及吸收特征

将当年生构树幼苗置于含有不同浓度（04、1、2、3、4 g·kg^-1）NaCl的土壤中,研究其生物量积累、叶片细胞质膜透性和K⁺、Ca²⁺、Na⁺、Cl^-等离子的吸收、分布及运输,并观察盐害症状.结果表明：构树幼苗的叶片质膜透性随着NaCl浓度的增加和胁迫时间的延长而升高,根冠比随NaCl浓度的升高而增加,大于3 g·kg^-1的土壤盐胁迫对构树叶片的质膜透性及植株的生物量积累影响显著.构树幼苗各器官中Na⁺和Cl^-含量随土壤NaCl浓度升高而显著增加,K⁺和Ca²⁺则随之降低,叶片各离子含量均明显高于根和茎.说明盐胁迫影响根系对K⁺和Ca²⁺的吸收,并抑制了它们向地上部分的选择性运输,使叶和茎的K⁺和Ca²⁺含量下降.构树通过吸收积累Na⁺和Cl^-抵御土壤盐分带来的渗透胁迫,但过量的Na⁺和Cl^-积累会造成单盐毒害.作为抗盐性较高的非盐生植物,构树地上部分的拒盐作用不显著.     

Effect of flooding and temperature regime on growth and stomatal resistance ofBetula platyphylla var.japonica seedlings

Summary Both flooding and low temperature reduced height and stem diameter growth; leaf initiation; growth of leaves, stems, and roots; and lowered root-shoot ratios of 112-dayoldBetula platyphylla var.japonica seedlings. Flooding also induced leaf scorching and abscission. Growth was reduced much more by flooding than by low temperature. Interactive effects of flooding and temperature were shown on height growth, leaf initiation and expansion, and dry weight increment of leaves, stems and roots. The amount of growth reduction by flooding and low temperature was greater when based on analysis of dry weight increment of leaves, stems, and roots, than on their relative growth rates. The greater reduction of growth by flooding than by low temperature was associated with fewer and smaller leaves, more leaf injury, more stomatal closure, and greater decay of roots in flooded plants. Flooding and low temperature appeared to reduce growth by somewhat different physiological mechanisms. Research supported by the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA and by Yamagata University, Tsuruoka, Japan. McIntyre-Stennis Project 2599.     

Effects of interrupted K+ supply on growth and uptake of K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ in spring wheat

Effects of interrupted K⁺ supply on different parameters of growth and mineral cation nutrition were evaluated for spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Svenno). K⁺ (2.0 mM) was supplied to the plants during different periods in an otherwise complete nutrient solution. Shoot growth was reduced before root growth after interruption in K⁺ supply. Root structure was greatly affected by the length of the period in K⁺ -free nutrient solution. Root length was minimal, and root branching was maximal within a narrow range of K⁺ status of the roots. This range corresponded to cultivation for the last 1 to 3 days, of 11 in total, in K⁺ -free nutrient solution, or to continuous cultivation in solution containing 0.5 to 2 mM K⁺. In comparison, both higher and lower internal/external K⁺ concentrations had inhibitory effects on root branching. However, the differing root morphology probably had no significant influence on the magnitude of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and Na⁺ uptake. Uptake of Ca²⁺ and especially Mg²⁺ significantly increased after K⁺ interruption, while Na⁺ uptake was constant in the roots and slowly increased in the shoots. The two divalent cations could replace K⁺ in the cells and maintain electroneutrality down to a certain minimal range of K⁺ concentrations. This range was significantly higher in the shoot [110 to 140 μmol (g fresh weight)^?1] than in the root [20 to 30 μmol (g fresh weight)^?1]. It is suggested that the critical K⁺ values are a measure of the minimal amount of K⁺ that must be present for physiological activity in the cells. At the critical levels, K⁺ (⁸⁶Rb) influx and Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ concentrations were maximal. Below the critical K⁺ values, growth was reduced, and Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ could no longer substitute for K⁺ for electrostatic balance. In a short-term experiment, the ability of Ca²⁺ to compete with K⁺ in maintaining electroneutrality in the cells was studied in wheat seedlings with different K⁺ status. The results indicate that K⁺, which was taken up actively and fastest at the external K⁺ concentration used (2.0 mM), partly determines the size of Ca²⁺ influx.     

Transport of Mg2+ and Ca2+, and Mg2+-stimulated adenosine triphosphatase activity in oat roots as affected by mineral nutrition

Mg²⁺- and Ca²⁺-uptake was measured in dark-grown oat seedlings ( Avena sativa L. cv. Brighton) cultivated at two levels of mineral nutrition. In addition the stimulation of the ATPase activity of the microsomal fraction of the roots by Mg²⁺ was measured. Ca²⁺-uptake by the roots was mainly passive. Mg²⁺-uptake mainly active; the passive component of Mg²⁺-uptake was accompanied by Ca²⁺-efflux up to 60% of the Ca²⁺ present in the roots.
In general Mg²⁺ -uptake of oat roots was biphasic. The affinity of the second phase correspond well with that of the Mg²⁺-stimulation of the ATPase activity, in low-salt roots as well as in high-salt roots and in roots of plants switched to the other nutritional condition. Linear relationships were observed when [phase 2] Mg²⁺-uptake was plotted against Mg²⁺-stimulation of the ATPase activity of the microsomal fraction of the roots. In 5 days old high-salt plants 1 ATP (hydrolysed in the presence of Mg²⁺ J corresponded with active uptake of a single Mg²⁺ ion, but in older high-salt roots and in low-salt roots more ATP was hydrolysed per net uptake of a Mg²⁺ ion. The results are discussed against the background of regulation of the Mg²⁺-level of the cytoplasm of root cells by transport of Mg²⁺ by a Mg²⁺-ATPase to the vacuole, to the xylem vessels, and possibly outwards.     

Effects of Ca2+ and polyamines on Na+ and Rb+ influx in excised maize roots

When 1 m M spermidine or spermine was included in an absorption solution which contained 20 m M Na⁺ and 1 m M Rb⁺, Na⁺ influx into excised maize roots ( Zea mays L. cv. Golden Cross Bantam) was reduced. Rb⁺ influx was reduced in the presence of spermidine and uneffected in the presence of spermine when compared with control solutions. When 1 m M Ca²⁺ replaced the polyamines, Na⁺ influx was strongly reduced and Rb⁺ influx was promoted. Rb⁺ influx from 1 m M Rb⁺ solutions which did not contain Na⁺ was also promoted by 1 m M Ca²⁺, but was inhibited by 1 m M spermidine. This Ca²⁺ promotion of Rb⁺ influx could be reversed by 10 times greater concentration of spermidine in the absorption solution. H⁺ efflux from excised roots was inhibited by spermidine when compared with Ca²⁺ or control solutions, however, the plasma membrane ATPase was not inhibited by spermidine. It is concluded that external Ca²⁺ plays two separate roles in membrane function, only one of which can be substituted for by polyamines. The first role, maintenance of membrane integrity, can be substituted for by spermidine or spermine. The second function, maintenance of the Rb⁺ transport mechanism, is Ca²⁺ specific and cannot be substituted for by spermidine or spermine. The results of this study are discussed in terms of electrostatic interactions between the plasma membrane and the Ca²⁺ or polyamines.     

Growth and accumulation of N, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ in barley exposed to various nutrient regimes and root/shoot temperatures

Six cultivars of spring barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cvs Salve, Nümberg II, Bomi, Risø 1508, Mona and Sv 73 608) were grown in water culture for three weeks with various combinations of mineral supply and differential roots/shoot temperatures during the growth period. Most important for growth and accumulation of N, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ was the mineral supply, followed by the root temperature and the choice of cultivar. Treatments with low mineral supply or low root temperature induced a uniform reduction in growth and accumulation of the ions studied. The effects of low mineral supply and low root temperature on growth and N accumulation was additive, which indicates that these factors exert their influence independently of each other.
Roots grown at 10°C were smaller and Rb⁺(⁸⁶Rb) influx was higher than in roots grown at 20°C. It is suggested that the control of Rb⁺(⁸⁶Rb) influx is affected by the root temperature and the age of the plants. The higher ⁸⁶Rb⁺ (⁸⁶Rb) influx into the low temperature roots could not compensate for the smaller root size. However, the lower total mineral accumulation made up for the needs of the smaller plants and cannot explain the reduction in growth.     

Effects of cadmium and lead on the accumulation of Ca2+ and K+ and on the influx and translocation of K+ in wheat of low and high K+ status

The effects of cadmium and lead on the internal concentrations of Ca²⁺ and K⁺, as well as on the uptake and translocation of K(⁸⁶Rb⁺) were studied in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L. a. MV-8) grown hydroponically at 2 levels of K⁺ (100 uM and 10 mM). Cd²⁺ and Pb²⁺ were applied in the nutrient solution in the range of 0.3 to 1000 u.M. Growth was more severely inhibited by Cd²⁺ and in the high-K⁺ plants as compared to Pb^z+ and low-K⁺ plants. Ions of both heavy metals accumulated in the roots and shoots, but the K⁺ status influenced their levels. Ca²⁺ accumulation was increased by low concentrations of Cd²⁺ mainly in low-K⁺ shoots, whereas it was less influenced by Pb²⁺. The distribution of Cd²⁺ and Ca²⁺ in the plant and in the growth media indicated high selectivity for Cd²⁺ in the root uptake, while Ca²⁺ was preferred in the radial and/or xylem transport. Cd²⁺ strongly inhibited net K⁺ accumulation in high-K⁺ plants but caused stimulation at low K⁺ supply. In contrast, the metabolis-dependent influx of K⁺(⁸⁶Rb⁺) was inhibited in low-K⁺ plants, while the passive influx in high-K⁺ plants was stimulated. Translocation of K⁺ from the roots to the shoots was inhibited by Cd²⁺ but less influenced in Pb²⁺-treated plants. It is concluded that the effects of heavy metals depend upon the K⁺-status of the plants.     

Hormonal Regulation of Ca2+ Stimulated K+ Influx and Ca2+, K+- ATPase in Rice Roots: in vivo and in vitro Effects of Auxins and Reconstitution of the ATPase

The role of natural and synthetic auxins in regulation of ion transport and ATPase activity was studied in rice roots (Oryza sativa L. cv. Dunghan Shah). In vivo treatment of seedlings with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid at 2 × 10^?6M for a short period enhanced subsequent Ca²⁺ stimulated K⁺ influx and ATPase activity, while a longer treatment diminished both K⁺ influx and ATPase activity. Indoleacetic acid at 10^?10–10^?8M induced ATPase activity. In in vitro experiments both 2,4-dichloro phenoxyacetic acid and indoleacetic acid (10^?10–10^?8M) stimulated Ca²⁺, K⁺-ATPase activity of a plasmalemma rich micro somal fraction from the roots. Acetone extracted ATPase preparations lost their activity. The enzyme regained its activity and its sensitivity towards ions (Ca²⁺+ K⁺) when reconstituted with phosphatidyl choline. Addition of auxins also indicated that the presence of the lipid was necessary in the interaction between the ATPase and auxins. Auxins and ions probably interact with the intact ATPase lipoprotein complex, which may possess a receptor site for the auxins, possibly as a sub unit.     

不同浓度Fe2+与Zn2+对羊草幼苗生长和生理特性的影响

以羊草幼苗为研究对象,通过调整全营养培养基(CK,0.05 mmol/L Fe²⁺、0.015 mmol/L Zn²⁺)中铁或者锌含量设置0、10倍、20倍Fe²⁺(Zn²⁺)浓度处理Fe₀(Zn₀)、Fe₁₀(Zn₁₀)、Fe₂₀(Zn₂₀),以及在高铁培养基中单独添加0.15 mmol/L Zn²⁺或同时添加10 mmol/L Ca²⁺、5 mmol/L Mg²⁺、20 mmol/L K⁺处理,测定培养6 d后幼苗生长指标和矿质元素含量、以及高铁(Fe₂₀)处理下幼苗根中抗氧化指标和相关基因表达量,探究不同浓度Fe²⁺、Zn²⁺对羊草幼苗生长、矿质元素吸收积累及抗氧化指标、基因表达的影响。结果表明：(1)缺锌(Zn₀)显著抑制羊草幼苗鲜重的增加和Zn元素的积累,但促进Fe、Mg元素的积累;高浓度锌(Zn₁₀、Zn₂₀)显著促进幼苗叶片生长和Zn元素的积累;缺铁(Fe₀)显著抑制幼苗的根长、鲜重和Fe元素的积累,促进Mg、Zn元素的积累;高浓度铁(Fe₁₀、Fe₂₀)显著抑制羊草幼苗根叶生长、根毛发育和Ca、Zn、Mg、K元素的积累。(2)增加Zn²⁺和Ca²⁺、Mg²⁺、K⁺浓度无法恢复高铁胁迫对幼苗生长的抑制作用。(3)高浓度铁(Fe₂₀)处理羊草幼苗48 h后,根部过氧化物酶、超氧化物歧化酶、过氧化氢酶、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶、谷胱甘肽还原酶活性和丙二醛、抗坏血酸、还原型谷胱甘肽含量显著升高;烟酰胺合成酶基因、过氧化物酶基因表达量显著下调,植物类萌发素蛋白基因表达量显著上调。研究发现,羊草幼苗生长发育和矿质元素积累对环境中Zn²⁺浓度变化不敏感,却受到环境中高浓度Fe²⁺的显著抑制,并造成严重的氧化胁迫伤害,这种伤害无法在添加Zn²⁺或同时添加Ca²⁺、Mg²⁺、K⁺的条件下恢复。     

Role of K+ in leaf growth: K+ uptake is required for light-stimulated H+ efflux but not solute accumulation

The stimulation of dicotyledonous leaf growth by light depends on increased H⁺ efflux, to acidify and loosen the cell walls, and is enhanced by K⁺ uptake. The role of K⁺ is generally considered to be osmotic for turgor maintenance. In coleoptiles, auxin‐induced cell elongation and wall acidification depend on K⁺ uptake through tetraethylammonium (TEA)‐sensitive channels (Claussen et al., Planta 201, 227–234, 1997), and auxin stimulates the expression of inward‐rectifying K⁺ channels ( Philippar et al. 1999) . The role of K⁺ in growing, leaf mesophyll cells has been investigated in the present study by measuring the consequences of blocking K⁺ uptake on several growth‐related processes, including solute accumulation, apoplast acidification, and membrane polarization. The results show that light‐stimulated growth and wall acidification of young tobacco leaves is dependent on K⁺ uptake. Light‐stimulated growth is enhanced three‐fold over dark levels with increasing external K⁺, and this effect is blocked by the K⁺ channel blockers, TEA, Ba⁺⁺ and Cs⁺. Incubation in 10 mm TEA reduced light‐stimulated growth and K⁺ uptake by 85%, and completely inhibited light‐stimulated wall acidification and membrane polarization. Although K⁺ uptake is significantly reduced in the presence of TEA, solute accumulation is increased. We suggest that the primary role of K⁺ in light‐stimulated leaf growth is to provide electrical counterbalance to H⁺ efflux, rather than to contribute to solute accumulation and turgor maintenance.     

Importance of adventitious roots to growth of floodedPlatanus occidentalis seedlings

Summary Flooding of soil with standing water for 50 or 110 days drastically reduced growth of 178-day-oldPlatanus occidentalis seedlings, with growth inhibited more as the duration of flooding was increased. Flooding reduced the rate of height and diameter growth, leaf initiation and expansion, and dry weight increment and relative growth rates of leaves, stems, and roots. Flooding also induced leaf epinasty, leaf necrosis, and formation of hypertrophied lenticels and many adventitious roots on submerged portions of stems. Severing of adventitious roots after 50 and 95 days from the submerged portions of stems of continuously flooded seedlings reduced several growth parameters including height and stem diameter growth and relative growth rates of leaves and roots. Evidence for the physiological importance of flood induced adventitious roots is discussed.Research supported by College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison and by Yamagata University, Tsuruoka, Japan. The technical assistance of John Shanklin is appreciated.     

Control of Na+ and K+ transport in Spergularia marina I. Transpiration effects

In this paper we begin our study of factors controlling Na⁺ and K⁺ uptake in the halophyte Spergularia marina (L.) Griseb., with emphasis on plants growing at moderate salinity (0.2x sea water). The involvement of transpiration was considered first because of its potential to account for much or all of the transport of ions, and particularly of Na⁺, to the shoot under these growth conditions. Transpiration was constant with time through most of the light period, quickly dropping to 6% of the day time rate at night. ²²Na⁺ uptake, on the other hand, showed much less day/night variation, and relative transport to the shoot was constant. After establishing that transpiration was linearly related to leaf weight, possible transpiration effects were further considered as correlations between leaf weight and transport to the shoot. Under constant, day-time conditions, with linear effects of time and plant size removed, total transport of ²²Na⁺ to the shoot (per plant) was not correlated to leaf weight. A similar result was found when transport was expressed per gram of root, and when partitioning of total label to the shoot was considered. Finally, the correlation was considered between leaf weight and a Na⁺/K⁺ enrichment factor defined as the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio in the leaves divided by that in the roots. This correlation was also insignificant. The results indicate that analysis of control of Na⁺ and K⁺ uptake and transport in this experimental system need not consider effects of transpiration.     

粘盖牛肝菌不同菌株对Zn2+、Cd2+的吸附及其对油松Zn2+、Cd2+的耐受性

为了探讨同一菌根真菌不同菌株对重金属的耐受性,选用采集于内蒙古阴山山脉不同地区的粘盖牛肝菌(Suillus bovinus)的不同菌株进行研究。首先,在不同浓度Zn^2 、Cd^2 液体培养基中培养菌丝体,以了解各菌株菌丝体对重金属的耐受性及吸附能力,采用烘干法和原予吸收法分别测定菌丝体的生物量和菌丝体、培养液中Zn^2 、Cd^2 含量,结果表明：劈柴沟粘盖牛肝菌在Zn^2 、Cd^2 胁迫条件下,生物量、吸附能力约为其余各菌株的1．5～2倍。其次,为了探明油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)形成菌根后对Zn^2 、Cd^2 胁迫的耐受性及其耐受机理,采用一次性定量浇灌不同浓度Zn^2 、Cd^2 溶液的方法,测定了菌根化油松苗地上、地下生物量及Zn^2 、Cd^2 含量的分配,结果表明：菌根形成后能显著促进油松的生长及对Zn^2 、Cd^2 胁迫的耐受性,并且菌根能够帮助油松吸收基质中大量的Zn^2 、Cd^2 ,根中重金属的含量是茎叶中的2～3倍以上,非菌根苗在重金属浓度稍高(Zn^2 400mg／kg;Cd^2 40mg／kg)时就会死亡。经方差分析及多重比较证实,劈柴沟粘盖牛肝菌对Zn^2 、Cd^2 的耐受性及对油松的促生效果与其它各菌株存在显著的差异,这可能是它通过把吸收的Zn^2 、Cd^2 最大限度地输送到根中的同时,也输送到了茎叶中,使重金属在体内得到一定程度的稀释,使自身免受毒害。     

亚适温条件下缺铁和硝酸盐胁迫对番茄幼苗生长及铁吸收的影响

研究亚适温(昼/夜18 ℃/12 ℃)条件下缺铁和硝酸盐胁迫对番茄幼苗生长及铁吸收的影响.结果表明: 与适温对照相比,亚适温条件下番茄幼苗生长受到明显的抑制,株高、叶面积显著变小,干物质积累下降;亚适温下缺铁对番茄幼苗生长的影响比适温下缺铁的影响大.亚适温条件下,缺铁、硝酸盐胁迫及二者同时胁迫的番茄幼苗株高与无胁迫处理差异不显著,但幼苗叶面积明显变小,电解质渗漏率、根系活力和三价铁还原酶活性明显增加,叶绿素含量降低;根总长、根表面积、根体积及根尖数明显减小;幼苗根、茎、叶中铁含量明显降低.亚适温下硝酸盐胁迫以及缺铁与硝酸盐二者同时胁迫加重了番茄幼苗干物质积累的减少、电解质渗漏率的增加,以及减少了对铁离子的吸收.Fe²⁺对K⁺和Ca²⁺吸收具有拮抗作用,不同器官中的表现有所差异;降低营养液中的Fe²⁺浓度可使番茄幼苗的缺铁症状更加严重.     

Growth Responses and Adaptations of Fraxinus pennsylvanica Seedlings to Flooding

Flooding induced several physiological and morphological changes in Fraxinus pennsylvanica seedlings, with stomatal closure among the earliest responses. Subsequent changes included: reduction in dry weight increment of roots, stems, and leaves; formation of hypertrophied lenticels and production of adventitious roots on submerged portions of the stem above the soil line; leaf necrosis; and leaf abscission. After 15 days of stomatal closure as a result of flooding, stomata began to reopen progressively until stomatal aperture was similar in flooded and unflooded plants. Adventitious roots began to form at about the time stomatal reopening began. As more adventitious roots formed, elongated, and branched, the stomata opened further. The formation of adventitious roots was an important adaptation for flooding tolerance as shown by the high efficiency of adventitious roots in absorption of water and in high correlation between the production of adventitious roots and stomatal reopening.     

K+(Rb+) and Ca2+ fluxes in young winter wheat plants exposed to sub-zero temperatures

Ice crystal formation temperature was determined in the region of the crown in one group of 7-day-old intact unhardened high-salt plants of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Weibulls Starke II) with TA (Thermal Analysis) and DTA (Differential Thermal Analysis) methods. After exposure of another group of plants, grown for the first 7 days in the same way as the first group, to various sub-zero temperatures (-1 to 5°C), influx in roots of Rb⁺(⁸⁶Rb⁺) and Ca²⁺(⁴⁵Ca²⁺) and contents of K⁺ and Ca²⁺ were determined at intervals during 7 days of recovery. Ice crystal formation in the crown tissue was probably extracellular and took place at about -4°C. There was a large loss of K⁺ from the roots after treatment at sub-zero temperatures. This loss increased as the temperature of the sub-zero treatment decreased. During recovery, roots of plants exposed to -1, -2 and -3°C gradually reabsorbed K⁺. Reabsorption of K⁺ in roots of plants exposed to -4°C was greatly impaired. Rb⁺ influx decreased and Ca²⁺ influx increased after sub-zero temperature treatments of the plants. Active Rb⁺ influx mechanisms and active extrusion of Ca²⁺ were impaired or irreversibly damaged by the exposure. While Rb⁺ influx mechanisms were apparently repaired during recovery in plants exposed to temperatures down to -3°C, Ca²⁺ extrusion mechanisms were not. The temperature for ice crystal formation in the region of the crown tissue coincides with the temperature at which the plants lost the ability to reabsorb K⁺ and to repair Rb⁺ influx mechanisms during the recovery period. Plants were lethally damaged at temperatures below ?4°C.     

1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylic Acid Transported from Roots to Shoots Promotes Leaf Abscission in Cleopatra Mandarin (Citrus reshni Hort. ex Tan.) Seedlings Rehydrated after Water Stress

The effect of water stress and subsequent rehydration on 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) content, ACC synthase activity, ethylene production, and leaf abscission was studied in Cleopatra mandarin (Citrus reshni Hort. ex Tan.) seedlings. Leaf abscission occurred when drought-stressed plants were allowed to rehydrate, whereas no abscission was observed in plants under water stress conditions. In roots of water-stressed plants, a high ACC accumulation and an increase in ACC synthase activity were observed. Neither increase in ACC content nor significant ethylene production were detected in leaves of water-stressed plants. After rehydration, a sharp rise in ACC content and ethylene production was observed in leaves of water-stressed plants. Content of ACC in xylem fluid was 10-fold higher in plants rehydrated for 2 h after water stress than in nonstressed plants. Leaf abscission induced by rehydration after drought stress was inhibited when roots or shoots were treated before water stress with aminooxyacetic acid (AOA, inhibitor of ACC synthase) or cobalt ion (inhibitor of ethylene-forming enzyme), respectively. However, AOA treatments to shoots did not suppress leaf abscission. The data indicate that water stress promotes ACC synthesis in roots of Cleopatra mandarin seedlings. Rehydration of plants results in ACC transport to the shoots, where it is oxidized to ethylene. Subsequently, this ethylene induces leaf abscission.     

Fluxes of Na+, K+ and Cl-, and osmotic adjustment in Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium and L. esculentum during short- and long-term exposures to NaCl

NaCl (140 m M ) was applied to 14-day-old plants of salt-sensitive Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Volgogradskij and its wild relative L. pimpinellifolium Mill. accession PE-2. Changes in the relative growth rate of whole plant, and in the levels of inorganic and organic solutes in leaves, stems and roots were followed for 15 days after the application. Short-term salt exposure (4–6 days of salinization) resulted in enhanced relative growth rates for L. pimpinellifolium , but did not affect growth of L. esculentum , After 6 days of salinization, the relative growth rates of both species decreased significantly; leading to practically comparable growth rates for them by day 15. In all parts of both species, the contribution of organic solutes to the osmotic potential (Ψ_s) gradually decreased from 30% on day 0 to a value lower than 5% on day 4. In L. pimpinellifolium , compared to L. esculentum , short-term salt exposure resulted in (1) a higher percentage of adjustment of Ψ_s; and (2) increases in Na⁺ and K⁺ uptake rates, and in the levels of organic acids and proline (the level of which reached that of sugars, i.e., 10 μmol g^-1 dry weight. Conversely, in L. esculentum , drastic reductions of K⁺ uptake rates and organic acid levels occurred already on day 1. During long-term salt exposure, both species were able to adjust osmotically and both exhibited decreases in organic acid levels as well as in K⁺ uptake and accumulation rates in all parts. The results are discussed in an attempt to explain the adaptive responses during short-term salt exposure and the metabolic dysfunctions that lead to growth decrease after long-term exposure to salt.